Kienzler, Donna S. - Locker, Kitty O. - Business and Administrative Communication-McGraw-Hill Education (2015)

Business and Administrative Communication ELEVENTH EDITION

KITTY O. LOCKER The Ohio State University

DONNA S. KIENZLER Iowa State University

BUSINESS AND ADMINISTRATIVE COMMUNICATION, ELEVENTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2015 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2013, 2010, and 2008. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOW/DOW 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 ISBN 978-0-07-340325-0 MHID 0-07-340325-3 Senior Vice President, Products & Markets: Kurt L. Strand Vice President, Content Production & Technology Services: Kimberly Meriwether David Managing Director: Paul Ducham Senior Brand Manager: Anke Braun Weekes Executive Director of Development: Ann Torbert Development Editor II: Kelly I. Pekelder Digital Product Analyst: Kerry Shanahan Marketing Manager: Michael Gedatus Marketing Specialist: Elizabeth Steiner Cover image credits: © Graham Bell/Corbis; Klaus Tiedge Director, Content Production: Terri Schiesl © Corbis. All Rights Reserved; © Marnie Burkhart/Corbis; Content Project Manager: Diane L. Nowaczyk © Adie Bush/cultura/Corbis; © Ocean/Corbis (multiple images); Content Project Manager: Susan Lombardi © Moment/cultura/Corbis; © Erik Isakson/Tetra Images/ Senior Buyer: Michael R. McCormick Corbis (multiple images); Hill Street Studios; Fuse; Michael Philip Designer: Debra Kubiak O’Malley; © Scott Dunlap/Getty Images; Troels Graugaard Lead Content Licensing Specialist: Keri Johnson (photographer); Aaron Roeth Photography; © PIXTAL; © Digital Typeface: 10.5/12 Palatino Vision/Getty Images; Denise McCullough; © Sam Edwards/age Compositor: Laserwords Private Limited fotostock (multiple images); © Floresco Productions/age fotostock; Printer: R.R. Donnelley © Chris Ryan/age fotostock (multiple images). All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Locker, Kitty O. Business and administrative communication / Kitty O. Locker, The Ohio State University, Donna Kienzler, Iowa State University.—Eleventh edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-07-340325-0 (alk. paper)—ISBN 0-07-340325-3 (alk. paper) 1. Business communication. 2. Communication in management. I. Kienzler, Donna S. II. Title. HF5718.L63 2015 651.7—dc23 2013041024

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGrawHill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. www.mhhe.com

To my beloved husband, Jim, and dearest friend Kitty.

A Debt of Gratitude Kitty O. Locker was my closest friend and professional colleague. We met in graduate school and mentored each other throughout our careers. She devoted herself to making Business and Administrative Communication a leading textbook, and I am proud to carry forward her tradition of excellence. Christopher Toth is a third person who has consistently contributed to the content and quality of Business and Administrative Communication (BAC). Christopher began working on BAC with the 8th edition, researching content, writing many sidebars, developing new exercises, and selecting photos; he also wrote the Mosaic extended case (available online), and co-revised the Instructor’s Manual and PowerPoint slides. He has continued to take a growing role in BAC. For the last two editions, in addition to helping with research and photographs, he has collaborated on text changes, updated the five chapters in the “Proposals and Reports” section plus the “Designing Documents” chapter, and written most of the ancillary materials. Christopher is an Assistant Professor at Grand Valley State University in Allendale, Michigan, where he teaches business communication, document design, professional writing, and visual rhetoric. His research interests are visual design, negative messages, technology concerns, and writing pedagogy. He consistently presents his research at the Association for Business Communication’s annual conference. For that organization, he also serves as the chair of the Technology Board.

T H E

A U T H O R

onna S. Kienzler is a Professor Emeritus of English at Iowa State University in Ames, Iowa, where she taught in the Rhetoric and Professional Communication program. She was the Director of Advanced Communication and oversaw more than 120 sections of business and technical communication annually. She was also an Assistant Director of the university’s Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching, where she taught classes, seminars, and workshops on pedagogy; directed graduate student programming; and directed the Preparing Future Faculty program, a careertraining program for graduate students and postdoctoral fellows. Her research focused on pedagogy and ethics. Her article with Helen Ewald, “Speech Act Theory and Business Communication Conventions,” won an Association for Business Communication (ABC) Alpha Kappa Psi Foundation Award for distinguished publication in business communication. Her article with Carol David, “Towards an Emancipatory Pedagogy in Service Courses and User Departments,” was part of a collection that won a National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) Award for Excellence in Technical and Scientific Communication: Best Collection of Essays in Technical or Scientific Communication. She has done consulting work for the Air Force, Tracor Consulting, Green Engineering, Northwestern Bell, Iowa Merit Employment, the Iowa Department of Transportation, the University of Missouri, and her local school district. She is active in the Association for Business Communication (ABC), where she currently serves on the board of directors as well as on the Business Practices and the Teaching Practices Committees. She also served on ABC’s Ad Hoc Committee on Professional Ethics, which developed a Professional Ethics Statement for the national organization. In 2002, she received ABC’s Meada Gibbs Outstanding Teacher Award.

B R I E F

PA R T O N E

C O N T E N T S

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages 1 Succeeding in Business Communication 2 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience 26 3 Building Goodwill 56 4 Navigating the Business Communication Environment

PA R T T W O

The Communication Process 5 Planning, Composing, and Revising 118 6 Designing Documents 158 7 Communicating across Cultures 186 8 Working and Writing in Teams 212

PA R T T H R E E

Basic Business Messages 9

Sharing Informative and Positive Messages with AppropriateTechnology 242 10 Delivering Negative Messages 286 11 Crafting Persuasive Messages 322 PA R T F O U R

The Job Hunt 12 Building Résumés 374 13 Writing Job Application Letters 420 14 Interviewing, Writing Follow-Up Messages, and Succeeding in the Job 452

PA R T F I V E

Proposals and Reports 15 Researching Proposals and Reports 486 16 Creating Visuals and Data Displays 518 17 Writing Proposals and Progress Reports 550 18 Analyzing Information and Writing Reports 574 19 Making Oral Presentations 620

Appendixes A Formatting Letters and E-mail Messages B Writing Correctly 658 C Citing and Documenting Sources 683 Glossary

692

Photo Credits Index vi

703

702

648

Connect ® + BAC = Effective Communicators Business and Administrative Communication (BAC) is flexible, specific, interesting, comprehensive, and up-to-date. BAC uses a rhetorical emphasis of audience purpose, and context allowing communicators to shape their messages appropriately for all channels and purposes. BAC conveys the best possible advice to students while Connect® Business Communication allows students to apply concepts and practice skills.

McGraw-Hill Connect Business Communication Connect is an all-digital teaching and learning environment designed from the ground up to work with the way instructors and students think, teach, and learn. As a digital teaching, assignment, and assessment platform, Connect strengthens the link among faculty, students, and coursework, helping everyone accomplish more in less time. LearnSmart Achieve: Excel in Your Writing LearnSmart Achieve is a revolutionary new learning system that combines a continually adaptive learning experience with important, rich, dynamic learning resources to help students learn the material, retain more knowledge and get better grades. Some student results can be found on the front inside cover of this text.

As a student progresses through LearnSmart Achieve, the program’s continuously adaptive learning path adjusts to deliver just-in-time resources—instructional videos, simulations—catered to each student’s needs. This model is designed to accelerate learning and strengthen memory recall. LearnSmart Achieve for Business Communication develops or improves editing skills and empowers students to put responsible writing into practice. With interactive documentation tools, it helps students master the foundations of writing. Developed

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based on ethnographic qualitative and quantitative research, it addresses the needs of today’s classrooms, both online and traditional. Presentation Skills: Skill Practice Inside and Outside the Classroom Connect’s presentation capture tool gives instructors the ability to evaluate presentations and students the freedom to practice their presentations anytime, and anywhere. With its fully customizable rubric, instructors can measure students’ uploaded presentations against course outcome and give students specific feedback on where improvement is needed.

Interactive Applications: A Higher Level of Learning Interactive Applications for each chapter allow students to practice real business situations, stimulate critical thinking, and reinforce key concepts. Students receive immediate feedback and can track their progress in their own report. Detailed results let instructors see at a glance how each student performs and easily track the progress of every student in their course.

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Connect Plus Business Communication Connect Plus Business Communication gives students access to an integrated e-book, allowing for anytime, anywhere access to the textbook. With each homework problem directly mapped to the topic in the book, the student is only one click away from the textbook. The e-book also includes a powerful search function that allows students to quickly scan the entire book for relevant topics. Efficient Administrative Capabilities Connect offers you, the instructor, autogradable material in an effort to facilitate teaching and learning.

Student Progress Tracking Connect keeps instructors informed about how each student, section, and class is performing, allowing for more productive use of lecture and office hours. The progress tracking function enables instructors to: ■

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View scored work immediately and track individual or group performance with assignment and grade reports. Access an instant view of student or class performance relative to learning objectives. Collect data and generate reports required by many accreditation organizations, such as AACSB.

Connect and LearnSmart allow me to present course material to students in more ways than just the explanations they hear from me directly. Because of this, students are processing the material in new ways, requiring them to think. I now have more students asking questions in class because the more we think, the more we question. Sharon Feaster, Instructor at Hinds Community College

What’s New? Many changes make the 11th edition even better. You will find new examples throughout the book. As you might expect, one of the biggest changes is even more emphasis on electronic communication and tools. In addition to an expanded Chapter 9, “Sharing Informative and Positive Messages with Appropriate Technology,” almost every chapter now has its own technology section. You will also notice more learning objectives and chapter summaries organized around learning objectives. New end-of-chapter exercises include shorter cases to complement the extended case on the BAC website. The 11th edition includes new communication advice from business figures such as Warren Buffett, Nate Silver, and Colin Powell; as well as new examples of communication practices from major businesses such as Amazon, Boeing, Campbell, Dairy Queen, IBM, J.C. Penney, Microsoft, Toyota, Yahoo, and Zappos. New web resources, as well as coverage of new topics, such as why positive psychology is important for business, why trust is important for good communication, how our body language influences our own behavior, what communication skills big data demands, how to create infographics, and why etiquette is important are discussed. Chapters offer new material from major business books, such as ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Dan Ariely, Predictably Irrational: The Hidden Forces that Shape Our Decisions. Marc Benioff and Karen Southwick, Compassionate Capitalism: How Corporations Can Make Doing Good an Integral Part of Doing Well. Jonah Berger, Contagious: Why Things Catch On. Clayton M. Christensen, James Allworth, and Karen Dillon, How Will You Measure Your Life? Frances Frei and Anne Morriss, Uncommon Service: How to Win by Putting Customers at the Core of Your Business. Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow. Carol Loomis, ed. Tap Dancing to Work: Warren Buffett on Practically Everything, 1966-2012: A Fortune Magazine Book. Daniel H. Pink, To Sell Is Human: The Surprising Truth about Moving Others. Colin Powell with Tony Koltz, It Worked for Me: In Life and Leadership. Nate Silver, The Signal and the Noise: Why So Many Predictions Fail—But Some Don’t.

Chapters also offer new information from leading business sources such as ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Bloomberg Businessweek CNNMoney Fast Company Forbes Fortune Harvard Business Review Inc. Wall Street Journal

Updates also come from leading metropolitan newspapers, including the Los Angeles Times, New York Times, and Washington Post, as well as too many websites to mention. Every chapter has been revised to keep it up-to-date for instructors and interesting for students. Listed below are new or updated content and features.

Chapter 1: Succeeding in Business Communication ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Opens with the nearly $50 billion cost of miscommunication for Bank of America. Updates figures for USPS mail and electronic communication quantities. Places section on “Benefits of Good Communication Skills” first. Reinforces good communication as a quality that makes organizations desirable places to work. Includes new information on how good communication skills benefit individuals. Provides new examples of billion-dollar costs for poor communication. Updates list of executives who have lost their positions because of e-mail. Updates section on electronic communication. Provides sidebars on importance of good writing and reading skills at Amazon, Warren Buffett’s advice on good business writing, and problem-solving advice from Nate Silver’s The Signal and the Noise.

Chapter 2: Adapting Your Message to Your Audience ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Opens with the outreach to male audiences for formerly female-oriented products. Increases information on electronic channels and their different advantages. Summarizes Pew research on channel shifts and age and gender preferences for channels. Provides examples on topics such as creative uses of channels and the efficacy of audience benefits. Discusses customers not willing to pay for benefits they need. Presents sidebars on audiences for General Colin Powell, audience subgroups for Americans without health insurance, Wikipedia channel mending, customer texting, business cards as a channel, and a younger audience for Campbell soups.

Chapter 3: Building Goodwill ■

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Includes new sections on “Positive Psychology,” what it is, how it uses youattitude and goodwill, why business should care about it, and how companies can use it; “Trust,” how it relates to the skills described in this chapter and why it is important for job success; and “Using Technology to Build Goodwill,” how companies are successfully using electronic channels. Opens with department store Macy’s efforts to offer merchandise appealing to specific minorities. Shows Microsoft using you-attitude in its relations with Chinese officials. xi

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Emphasizes the importance of you-attitude as a job skill that computers will not replace. Updates information on the makeup of the U.S. population showing the growing diversity of the workplace and the need to communicate with appropriate, unbiased language. Provides sidebars on airline goodwill, Progressive insurance goodwill, the positive/negative ratio for success in business, workplace thanks, inaccurate positive spin from movie studios, the perils of offensive advertising, and web accessibility.

Chapter 4: Navigating the Business Communication Environment ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

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Includes new sections on etiquette and big data. Opens with a description of grocery stores using nonverbal communication to create a sales environment. Provides additional information on and examples of ethics initiatives and the huge costs of ethics lapses. Presents additional criteria for ethical choices and action. Gives new web resources on ethics. Updates information on outsourcing, globalization, and corporate culture. Explains ways our body language influences our own behavior. Includes new material on networking, data security problems, electronic media invasions of privacy, and the innovation process. Also presents new material on big data: what it is, why it is important, how it is being used, and communication skills it demands. Provides new examples of firms working to keep a more positive work/ family balance and to reduce their environmental impact. Explains the debate over telecommuting sparked by Yahoo’s new CEO. Presents sidebars on communication ethics, job perks as part of corporate culture, exercise workstations, the role of serendipity in interpersonal communications, the hacking of the Sony networks, and data mining competitions.

Chapter 5: Planning, Composing, and Revising ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

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Opens with a $1.2 billion two-word phrase. Provides writing advice from professional writers Donald Murray and Anne Lamott. Elaborates on creating a rough draft. Presents style illustrations from Warren Buffett’s 2012 letter to stockholders. Provides new examples of diction choices with profound implications. Includes information on technology that helps in giving and receiving feedback. Presents sidebars on forecasting vs. predicting earthquakes, bribery definitions, words for selling homes, the Internet’s influence on conciseness, and proofreading errors.

Chapter 6: Designing Documents ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Includes new sections on using various software programs to create designs and on creating infographics. Opens with a description of how Morningstar, an investment firm, uses document design to communicate complicated ideas to customers. Presents new information on white space plus social media and conventions. Provides new examples, including before and after examples of Delta boarding passes, as well as an infographic example. Presents sidebars on useful design principles, the power of color, infographic resources, image/photo resources, and usability.gov.

Chapter 7: Communicating across Cultures ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

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Includes a new section on outsourcing as a major aspect of global business. Opens with an explanation of how the success of Dairy Queen in China came from its adaptations to local culture. Updates information on global business, local culture adaptations, and diversity in North America. Presents information on customs for business meetings in Brazil, China, Germany, India, Japan, Russia, and Saudi Arabia. Also includes new information on food at global business meetings, body language in different countries, writing to international audiences, and oral communication, including a new section on handling negatives. Presents sidebars on marketing for Hispanic audiences, nonverbal communication tips for China, the difficulty of translating brand names into other languages, and IBM’s expansion in Africa.

Chapter 8: Working and Writing in Teams ■ ■ ■

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Provides a new section on technology for teams. Opens with the importance of teamwork for animators. Includes new information on leadership, brainstorming techniques, and conflict resolution, as well as the importance of team skills for hiring and job success. Also adds new material on technology for teams, including sections on technologies for meetings, scheduling and assignments, and collaboration. Presents sidebars on scorecards for teams; teamwork myths; a company that’s all teams, no bosses; and Berkshire Hathaway’s 2013 annual meeting.

Chapter 9: Sharing Informative and Positive Messages with Appropriate Technology ■ ■

Includes new sections on tablet technology and on the use of story in informative messages. Opens with an article on how the Cleveland Clinic is providing better information to patients. xiii

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Includes new information on using communication technology, text messages, tweets, and other social media; also, content on e-mail etiquette and following up on e-mails. Updates examples—from sources as varied as text messages, tweets, the National Hurricane Center, banks, credit card contracts, Zappos, and Standard and Poor. Provides sidebars on teaching doctors communication skills, pilots and air controllers texting each other, using social media at work, small businesses preferring LinkedIn over Twitter, managing your e-mail inbox, International Finance Corporation using storytelling to help transfer information, and the CDC’s zombie apocalypse campaign spreading information on disaster preparations.

Chapter 10: Delivering Negative Messages ■ ■ ■

■ ■ ■

Includes a new section on using technology for negative messages. Opens with J.C. Penney’s media apology to try to slow its drastic decline in revenue. Provides new information on the costs of mishandling negative communication, including the costs of withholding negative communication; handling negative communication from employees; dealing with criticism; and tone in oral communications (rudeness). Shows how to respond to some common oral negative situations. Discusses pros and cons of various technologies for handling negative situations. Presents sidebars on bad weather warnings; restoring goodwill at Delta Air Lines; Toyota’s media blitz to recover from its massive recall; the difficulties of cross-cultural apologies; a successful apology for a product meltdown; negative communications from lawyers negatively influencing judges, juries, and settlements; and Progressive Insurance’s media flop: “My Sister Paid Progressive Insurance to Defend Her Killer in Court.”

Chapter 11: Crafting Persuasive Messages ■ ■

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Includes new sections on using technology for persuasive messages and on explaining problem solutions. Opens with a persuasive letter from congressional representatives to Washington Redskins owner Dan Snyder asking him to change the name of his team and not use Native Americans as mascots. Bolsters support for the importance of persuasion in business communications. Presents new examples for using emotional appeals and adapting persuasion to organizational cultures. Offers new information on choice architecture, constraints on evidence, performance reviews, and pricing; as well as choosing the wrong kind of persuasion, controlling information for sales, and explaining why the belief in the efficacy of threats is so widespread.

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Provides sidebars on a water charity, the importance of simplifying information and navigation on the web, persuasion to lose weight, Nobel prize winner Daniel Kahneman on how to write a believable persuasive message, behavioral economics being used in India for safety and health issues, Obama presidential campaign e-mail subject lines, in-store persuasion, how to persuade people to buy your business book, distinctions between charities and businesses, and fund-raising etiquette.

Chapter 12: Building Résumés ■ ■

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Includes a new section on innovation and résumés, including videos, social media résumés, and “prezumés.” Opens with a discussion of former Yahoo CEO Scott Thompson losing his job because of résumé dishonesty and then highlights other famous people who recently lost their jobs because of résumé dishonesty. Expands information on the role of social media in the job search. Updates job changing information, the steps of a job hunt, the importance of the GPA. Adds information on how to organize for a job hunt, how new employees are being found, how employers are filling jobs through social media, how to job hunt while currently employed. Expands emphasis on the importance of the traditional résumé. Provides sidebars on electronic tools for organizing job hunt materials, résumé blunders, famous people who have worked at McDonald’s, the value of “soft” skills, and overused buzzwords, as well as what employers want, how Coca-Cola hires, and how to clean up online footprints (the Grandma Test).

Chapter 13: Writing Job Application Letters ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Includes a new section on social networking and personal websites. Opens with two very different application letters, both widely circulated, for Wall Street jobs. Includes new information on e-mail application letters and managing social media while job hunting. Updates examples. Presents sidebars on career changes, phantom job ads, unconventional tactics, bad cover letter content, and good cover letter content.

Chapter 14: Interviewing, Writing Follow-Up Messages, and Succeeding in the Job ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Offers new sections on meal etiquette and long-term career strategy. Opens with a Twitter interview for Pizza Hut. Includes new information on campus interviews. Provides new tips on phone, video, and multiple interviews. Presents new sidebars on jobs at Fortune’s best companies to work for, Amazon interviews, Elena Kagan’s confirmation “interview,” and interview bloopers. xv

Chapter 15: Researching Proposals and Reports ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Includes new sections on using technology, including social media, for research and using quotations. Opens with a discussion of the United Nations report on how children are affected by war. Provides new examples of plagiarism in the news and how businesses routinely use research and surveys. Includes new information on Google searches, problems with phone surveys, and phrasing survey questions. Presents new sidebars on plagiarism among high-ranking politicians, research with e-readers, and research on the Deepwater Horizon explosion causes.

Chapter 16: Creating Visuals and Data Displays ■ ■ ■

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Includes new sections on infographics and software programs for creating visuals and data displays. Opens with a discussion of Australian cigarette packaging. Offers new information on dynamic displays, cross-cultural color associations, accommodations for persons with color blindness, ethical concerns with photos. Provides new examples and figures. Presents sidebars on ads for two audiences in one, color and NHL penalties, a doctored photo of the Boston Marathon bombing, and smartphones and photographs.

Chapter 17: Writing Proposals and Progress Reports ■ ■ ■ ■

Includes new sections on brainstorming for proposals, proposal varieties, and proposals for businesses. Opens with a new banking proposal. Provides new information on using technology and organizing proposals for businesses. Presents sidebars on MBA business plan competitions, Airbus proposal contest, business plan resources, Boeing’s Progress Report on 787 Dreamliner, and databases and librarians.

Chapter 18: Analyzing Information and Writing Reports ■ ■ ■ ■

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Includes new sections on data selection and appendixes. Opens with Boeing’s Environmental Report. Provides new information on technology aids, especially for using time efficiently and auto-generating a table of contents. Presents sidebars on spreadsheet errors; hard-to-quantify sports participation data; the Feltron, an annual report on a life; cost-of-living comparison patterns; charity data; and a report on U.S. health.

Chapter 19: Making Oral Presentations ■ ■ ■

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Includes new sections on creating a Prezi and practicing presentations. Opens with Steve Jobs as orator. Includes new information on content choices, demonstrations, presentation openings, PowerPoint, other types of presentation software, backchannels and Twitter, and handling questions. Presents new sidebars on charisma, U.S. Army’s spaghetti slide, audience perception of voices, handling tough questions, and slide sharing websites.

Retained Features BAC Is Flexible Choose the chapters and exercises that best fit your needs. Choose from inclass exercises, messages to revise, problems with hints, and cases presented as they’d arise in the workplace. Many problems offer several options: small group discussions, individual writing, group writing, or oral presentations.

BAC Is Specific BAC provides specific strategies, specific guidelines, and specific examples, including annotated examples and paired good and bad examples. BAC takes the mystery out of creating effective messages.

BAC Is Interesting Anecdotes from a variety of fields show business communication at work. The lively side columns from a host of sources provide insights into the workplace.

BAC Is Comprehensive BAC includes international communication, communicating across cultures in this country, ethics, collaborative writing, organizational cultures, visuals and data displays, and technology as well as traditional concerns such as style and organization. Assignments offer practice dealing with international audiences or coping with ethical dilemmas. Analyses of sample problems prepare students to succeed in assignments.

BAC Is Up-to-Date The 11th edition of BAC incorporates the latest research and practice so that you stay on the cutting edge.

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Chapter Pedagogy Chapter Outline and Learning Objectives Each chapter begins with a chapter outline and learning objectives to guide students as they study. The chapter summary is organized by learning objectives and followed by learning objective review questions. Learning Objectives

Planning, Composing, and Revising

Activities in the Composing Process Using Your Time Effectively Brainstorming, Planning, and Organizing Business Documents Writing Good Business and Administrative Documents ■ ■ ■

Business Styles The Plain Language Movement Individualized Styles

Half-Truths about Business Writing ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Half-Truth 1: “Write as You Talk.” Half-Truth 2: “Never Use I.” Half-Truth 3: “Never Use You.” Half-Truth 4: “Never Begin a Sentence with And or But.” Half-Truth 5: “Never End a Sentence with a Preposition.” Half-Truth 6: “Never Have a Sentence with More than 20 Words, or a Paragraph with More than 8 Lines.”

LO 5-1

Activities involved in the composing process, and how to use these activities to your advantage.

LO 5-2

Guidelines for effective word choice, sentence construction, and paragraph organization.

LO 5-3

Techniques to revise, edit, and proofread your communications.

Exercises and Cases

Chapter Outline The Ways Good Writers Write

After studying this chapter, you will know

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5.1

Half-Truth 7: “Big Words Impress People.” Half-Truth 8: “Business Writing Does Not Document Sources.”

1. What are some techniques of good writers? Which ones do you use regularly? (LO 5-1–3) 2. What are ways to get ideas for a specific communication? (LO 5-1) 3. What activities are part of the composing process? Which one should you be doing more often or more carefully in your writing? (LO 5-1) 4. What are some half-truths about style? (LO 5-2) 5. What are some ways you can make your sentences more effective? (LO 5-2)

Ten Ways to Make Your Writing Easier to Read ■ ■ ■

As You Choose Words As You Write and Revise Sentences As You Write and Revise Paragraphs

Organizational Preferences for Style Revising, Editing, and Proofreading ■ ■ ■

What to Look for When You Revise What to Look for When You Edit How to Catch Typos

*Go to www.mhhe.com/locker11e for additional Exercises and Cases.

Reviewing the Chapter 6. What are some ways you can make your paragraphs more effective? (LO 5-2) 7. How can you adapt good style to organization preferences? (LO 5-2) 8. How do revising, editing, and proofreading differ? Which one do you personally need to do more carefully? (LO 5-3) 9. How can you get better feedback on your writing? (LO 5-3)

Getting and Using Feedback Using Boilerplate Readability Formulas Summary by Learning Objectives

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Business Communication in the News Each chapter is introduced with a current news article relevant to the chapter’s concepts. These opening articles set the stage for the chapter’s content and allow students a glimpse at how the material applies in the business world. loc03253_ch05_118-157.indd 120

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NEWSWORTHY COMMUNICATION Designing for Success

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ith its detailed analysis of pages of financial data, investment research is not usually associated with good graphic design. But for Morningstar, an international investment research firm, graphic design is central to its business. Morningstar’s clients count on the firm’s well-designed infographics to “demystify and enliven investing.” The dedication to design began early at Morningstar. Soon after it was founded in 1984, the firm spent

$50,000 for a professionally designed corporate logo. Since then, the company has continued to focus on design, not just in its documents, but also in all of its products, websites, and even the architecture and interior design at the corporate offices. Maintaining the commitment to high-quality design is so important that the head of the design department at Morningstar is part of the company’s executive team and reports to the chairman and CEO.

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This focus on incorporating excellent design as a central part of the business model has paid off for Morningstar. It is now a $3.2 billion company that was included in the Fortune “100 Best Companies to Work For” list in 2011 and 2012. According to Morningstar’s CEO, Joe Mansueto, a good portion of that success is a result of the company’s focus on design: “I think the cost-benefit payoff is very, very high.”

Source: Barbara T. Armstrong, “Good Design Is Good Business. Just Ask Morningstar,” Forbes.com, April 2, 2013, http://www.forbes.com/sites/ barbaraarmstrong/2013/04/02/good-design-is-good-business-just-ask-morningstar/.

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Wealth of Sidebar Examples These novel and interesting examples effectively enhance student understanding of key concepts. Featured in the margins of every chapter, these sidebars cover topic areas that include International, Legal/Ethical, Just for Fun, Technology, Web, and On the Job. In addition, gold stars identify “classic” sidebars.

Full-Page Sample Documents A variety of visual examples featuring full-sized letters, e-mails, reports, and résumés are presented in the text. These examples include the authors’ “handwritten” annotations, explaining communication miscues, while offering suggestions for improvement. 588

Part 5

Figure 18.3

Proposals and Reports

An Informative Report Describing How a Company Solved a Problem

March 14, 2014 To:

Donna S. Kienzler

From:

Sara A. Ratterman

rts use Informal short repo at. letter or memo form

First Subject: Recycling at Bike Nashbar paragraph summarizes main Two months ago, Bike Nashbar began recycling its corrugated cardboard boxes. The program points. was easy to implement and actually saves the company a little money compared to our previous

garbage pickup. Purpose In this report, I will explain how and why Bike Nashbar’s program was initiated, how the and scope program works and what it costs, and why other businesses should consider similar programs. of report. Bold headings.

The Problem of Too Many Boxes and Not Enough Space in Bike Nashbar Every week, Bike Nashbar receives about 40 large cardboard boxes containing bicycles and other merchandise. As many boxes as possible would be stuffed into the trash bin behind the building, Cause of which also had to accommodate all the other solid waste the shop produces. Boxes that didn’t fit problem. in the trash bin ended up lying around the shop, blocking doorways, and taking up space needed

for customers' bikes. The trash bin was emptied only once a week, and by that time, even more boxes would have arrived. Triple space before heading.

The Importance of Recycling Cardboard Rather than Throwing It Away Double space after heading.

Arranging for more trash bins or more frequent pickups would have solved the immediate problem at Bike Nashbar but would have done nothing to solve the problem created by throwing away so much trash in the first place. Double space between paragraphs within heading.

According to David Crogen, sales representative for Waste Management, Inc., 75% of all solid waste in Columbus goes to landfills. The amount of trash the city collects has increased 150% in Further the last five years. Columbus‘s landfill is almost full. In an effort to encourage people and seriousness businesses to recycle, the cost of dumping trash in the landfill is doubling from $4.90 a cubic yard lem. prob of to $9.90 a cubic yard next week. Next January, the price will increase again, to $12.95 a cubic yard. Crogen believes that the amount of trash can be reduced by cooperation between the landfill and the power plant and by recycling. How Bike Nashbar Started Recycling Cardboard

r of Capitalize ﬁrst lette ding. major words in hea

Waste Management, Inc., is the country’s largest waste processor. After reading an article about how committed Waste Management, Inc., is to waste reduction and recycling, I decided to see

Solution. whether Waste Management could recycle our boxes. Corrugated cardboard (which is what Bike

Nashbar’s boxes are made of) is almost 100% recyclable, so we seemed to be a good candidate for recycling.

xix

Good and Bad Examples Paired effective and ineffective communication examples are presented so students can pinpoint better ways to phrase messages to help improve their communication skills. Commentaries in red and blue inks indicate poor or good methods of message communication and allow for easy comparison. 3. Don’t talk about feelings, except to congratulate or offer sympathy. In most business situations, your feelings are irrelevant and should be omitted. Lacks you-attitude:

We are happy to extend you a credit line of $15,000.

You-attitude:

You can now charge up to $15,000 on your American Express card.

It is appropriate to talk about your own emotions in a message of congratulations or condolence. You-attitude:

Congratulations on your promotion to district manager! I was really pleased to read about it.

Don’t talk about your audience’s feelings, either. It’s distancing to have others tell us how we feel—especially if they are wrong. Lacks you-attitude:

You’ll be happy to hear that Open Grip Walkway Channels meet OSHA requirements.

You-attitude:

Open Grip Walkway Channels meet OSHA requirements.

Maybe the audience expects that anything you sell would meet government regulations (OSHA—the Occupational Safety and Health Administration—is a federal agency). The audience may even be disappointed if they expected higher standards. Simply explain the situation or describe a product’s features; don’t predict the audience’s response. When you have good news, simply give the good news. Lacks you-attitude:

You’ll be happy to hear that your scholarship has been renewed.

You-attitude:

Congratulations! Your scholarship has been renewed.

Checklists Checklists for important messages appear throughout the book. These helpful lists serve as a handy reference guide of items to keep in mind when composing and editing messages. Checklist

Untitled-3 60

11/10/13 3:19 AM Is the organization effective? What parts aren’t clear? What ideas need further development and support? Do you have any other suggestions? Polishing draft Are there any problems with word choice or sentence structure? Did you find any inconsistencies? Did you find any typos? Is the document’s design effective?

Exercises and Cases These hands-on exercises are flexible and can be used as in-class discussions or as individual and group assignments. These workplace exercises allow students to assume a role or perform a task in a variety of realistic business scenarios. Helpful “hints” provide structure and guidance to students for them to complete the exercises. loc03253_ch05_118-157.indd 148

09/10/13 11:50 PM

Teaching Support Instructor Library Connect’s instructor library serves as a one-stop, secure site for essential course materials, allowing you to save prep time before class. The instructor resources found in the library include:

Instructor Manual

The Instructor’s Manual, which contains

■

Answers to all exercises, an overview and difficulty rating for each problem, and, for several of the problems in the book, a detailed analysis, discussion questions, and a good solution.

■

Additional exercises and cases for diagnostic and readiness tests, grammar and style, and for letters, memos, and reports.

■

Lesson plans and class activities for each chapter. You’ll find discussion guides, activities to reinforce chapter materials and prepare students for assignments, and handouts for group work, peer editing, and other activities.

■

Sample syllabi for courses with different emphases and approaches.

Test Bank The Test Bank contains approximately 1,400 test items with answers. Each is tagged with learning objective, level of difﬁculty (corresponding to Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives), and AACSB standards. EZ Test Online McGraw-Hill’s EZ Test Online is a flexible and easy-to-use electronic testing program. The program allows instructors to create tests from book-specific items, accommodates a wide range of question types, and enables instructors to even add their own questions. Multiple versions of a test can be created, and any test can be exported for use with course management systems such as WebCT and Blackboard or with any other course management system. EZ Test Online is accessible to busy instructors virtually anywhere via the web, and the program eliminates the need to install test software. For more information about EZ Test Online, please see the website at www.eztestonline.com.

PowerPoint ® PowerPoint ® presentations with lecture notes, graphics, and figures from the book to further explain concepts from the text.

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Management Asset Gallery McGraw-Hill is excited to provide a one-stop shop for our wealth of assets, making it quick and easy for instructors to locate specific materials to enhance their course.

All of the following can be accessed within the Management Asset Gallery: Manager’s Hot Seat—This interactive, video-based application puts students in the manager’s hot seat, builds critical thinking and decision-making skills, and allows students to apply concepts to real managerial challenges. Students watch as 15real managers apply their years of experience when confronting unscripted issues such as bullying in the workplace, cyber loafing, globalization, intergenerational work conflicts, workplace violence, and leadership versus management. Self-Assessment Gallery—Unique among publisher-provided self-assessments, our 23 self-assessments give students background information to ensure they understand the purpose of the assessment. Students test their values, beliefs, skills, and interests in a wide variety of areas, allowing them to personally apply chapter content to their own lives and careers. Every self-assessment is supported with PowerPoints and an instructor manual in the Management Asset Gallery, making it easy for the instructor to create an engaging classroom discussion surrounding the assessments.

Online Learning Center (OLC) A limited set of student study tools, as well as all instructor resources can also be accessed on the following password protected website: www.mhhe.com/locker11e.

McGraw-Hill Customer Experience Group Contact Information

xxii

At McGraw-Hill, we understand that getting the most from new technology can be challenging. That’s why our services don’t stop after you purchase our products. You can e-mail our product specialists 24 hours a day to get product training online. Or you can search our knowledge bank of Frequently Asked Questions on our support website. For customer support, call 800-331-5094, or visit www.mhhe.com/support. One of our technical support analysts will be able to assist you in a timely fashion.

Course Design and Delivery Create Craft your teaching resources to match the way you teach! With McGraw-Hill Create, www.mcgrawhillcreate.com, you can easily rearrange chapters, combine material from other content sources, and quickly upload content you have written, like your course syllabus or teaching notes. Find the content you need in Create by searching through thousands of leading McGraw-Hill textbooks. Arrange your book to fit your teaching style. Create even allows you to personalize your book’s appearance by selecting the cover and adding your name, school, and course information. Order a Create book and you’ll receive a complimentary print review copy in three to five business days or a complimentary electronic review copy (eComp) via e-mail in about one hour. Go to www.mcgrawhillcreate.com today and register. Experience how McGraw-Hill Create empowers you to teach your students your way.

E-Book Option E-books are an innovative way for students to save money and to “go green.” McGraw-Hill e-books are typically 40% off the bookstore price. Students have this choice between an online and a downloadable CourseSmart e-book. Through CourseSmart, students have the flexibility to access an exact replica of their textbook from any computer that has Internet service, without plug-ins or special software, via the online version or to create a library of books on their hard drive via the downloadable version. Access to the CourseSmart e-books lasts for one year. Features: CourseSmart e-books allow students to highlight, take notes, organize notes, and share the notes with other CourseSmart users. Students can also search for terms across all e-books in their purchased CourseSmart library. CourseSmart e-books can be printed (five pages at a time). Visit www.coursesmart.com for more information and to purchase access to our e-books. CourseSmart allows students to try one chapter of the e-book, free of charge, before purchase.

Binder-Ready Loose-Leaf Text This full-featured text is provided as an option to the price-sensitive student. It is a four-color text that’s three-hole punched and made available at a discount to students. It is also available in a package with Connect Plus.

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Tegrity Campus Tegrity makes class time available 24/7 by automatically capturing every lecture in a searchable format for students to review when they study and complete assignments. With a simple one-click start-and-stop process, you capture all computer screens and corresponding audio. Students can replay any part of any class with easy-to-use browser-based viewing on a PC or Mac. Educators know that the more students can see, hear, and experience class resources, the better they learn. In fact, studies prove it. With patented Tegrity “search anything” technology, students instantly recall key class moments for replay online, or on iPods and mobile devices. Instructors can help turn all their students’ study time into learning moments immediately supported by their lecture. To learn more about Tegrity, watch a two-minute Flash demo at http://tegritycampus.mhhe.com.

Blackboard® Partnership McGraw-Hill and Blackboard have teamed up to simplify your life. Now you and your students can access Connect and Create right from within your Blackboard course—all with one single sign-on. The grade books are seamless, so when a student completes an integrated Connect assignment, the grade for that assignment automatically (and instantly) feeds your Blackboard grade center. Learn more at www.domorenow.com.

McGraw-Hill Campus™ McGraw-Hill Campus is a new one-stop teaching and learning experience available to users of any learning management system. This institutional service allows faculty and students to enjoy single sign-on (SSO) access to all McGraw-Hill materials, including the award-winning McGraw-Hill Connect platform, from directly within the institution’s website. With McGraw-Hill Campus, faculty receive instant access to teaching materials (e.g., e-textbooks, test banks, PowerPoint slides, learning objects, etc.), allowing them to browse, search, and use any instructor ancillary content in our vast library at no additional cost to instructor or students. In addition, students enjoy SSO access to a variety of free content and subscription-based products (e.g., McGraw-Hill Connect). With McGraw-Hill Campus enabled, faculty and students will never need to create another account to access McGraw-Hill products and services. Learn more at www.mhcampus.com.

Assurance of Learning Ready Many educational institutions today are focused on the notion of assurance of learning, an important element of some accreditation standards. Business and Administrative Communication is designed specifically to support your assurance of learning initiatives with a simple, yet powerful solution. Each test bank question for Business and Administrative Communication maps to a specific chapter learning objective listed in the text. You can use our test bank software, EZ Test and EZ Test xxiv

Online, or Connect Business Communication to easily query for learning outcomes/ objectives that directly relate to the learning objectives for your course. You can then use the reporting features of EZ Test to aggregate student results in similar fashion, making the collection and presentation of assurance of learning data simple and easy.

AACSB Tagging McGraw-Hill is a proud corporate member of AACSB International. Understanding the importance and value of AACSB accreditation, this text recognizes the curricula guidelines detailed in the AACSB standards for business accreditation by connecting selected questions in the test bank to the six general knowledge and skill guidelines in the AACSB standards. The statements contained in this text are provided only as a guide for the users of this textbook. The AACSB leaves content coverage and assessment within the purview of individual schools, the mission of the school, and the faculty. While Business and Administrative Communication and the teaching package make no claim of any specific AACSB qualification or evaluation, we have within Business and Administrative Communication labeled selected questions according to the six general knowledge and skills areas.

xxv

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

ll writing is in some sense collaborative. This book in particular builds upon the ideas and advice of teachers, students, and researchers. The people who share their ideas in conferences and publications enrich not only this book but also business communication as a field. Many people reviewed the 11th edition, suggesting what to change and what to keep. We thank all of these reviewers for their attention to detail and their promptness! Eve Ash, Oklahoma State University Tulsa Tracy Austin, Sam Houston State University Sarah Bleakney, Georgia Institute of Technology Yvonne Block, College of Lake County Nicole Buzzetto-More, University of Maryland Eastern Shore Rosemarie Cramer, Community College of Baltimore County Tena Crews, University of South Carolina Yvette Essounga-Njan, Fayetteville State University Cynthia Houlden, University of Nebraska–Kearney

Paul Lewellan, Augustana College Joyce Lopez, Missouri State University Carol Meyer, American Public University Tanya Patrick, Clackamas Community College Kara Romance, Indiana University of Pennsylvania Tim Rowe, SUNY Fredonia Bobbie Schnepf, South Central Louisiana Technical College–River Parishes Stacey Short, Northern Illinois University Chris Ziemnowicz, University of North Carolina at Pembroke

In addition, the book continues to benefit from people who advised me on earlier editions: Mark Alexander, Indiana Wesleyan University Bill Allen, University of LaVerne Vanessa Arnold, University of Mississippi Lynn Ashford, Alabama State University Jean Baird, Brigham Young University–Idaho Lenette Baker, Valencia Community College Dennis Barbour, Purdue University–Calumet Laura Barelman, Wayne State College xxvi

Fiona Barnes, University of Florida Jan Barton-Zimerman, University of Nebraska–Kearney Jaye Bausser, Indiana University– Purdue University at Fort Wayne Sallye Benoit, Nicholls State University Michael Benton, Bluegrass Community and Technology College Raymond W. Beswick, formerly of Synerude, Ltd. Carole Bhakar, The University of Manitoba Cathie Bishop, Parkland College

Acknowledgments

Randi Meryl Blank, Indiana University Yvonne Block, College of Lake County Bennis Blue, Virginia State University John Boehm, Iowa State University Maureen S. Bogdanowicz, Kapi’olani Community College Kendra S. Boggess, Concord College Melanie Bookout, Greenville Technical College Christy Ann Borack, California State University–Fullerton; Orange Coast College–Costa Mesa Mary Young Bowers, Northern Arizona University Charles P. Bretan, Northwood University Paula Brown, Northern Illinois University Vincent Brown, Battelle Memorial Institute William Brunkan, Augustana College John Bryan, University of Cincinnati Phyllis Bunn, Delta State University Trudy Burge, University of Nebraska–Lincoln Janice Burke, South Suburban College of Cook County Nicole Buzzetto-More, University of Maryland–East Shore Robert Callahan, The University of Texas–San Antonio Andrew Cantrell, University of Illinois Danny Cantrell, West Virginia State College Peter Cardon, University of South Carolina Susan Carlson John Carr, The Ohio State University Kathy Casto Marilyn Chalupa, Ball State University Kelly Chaney, Southern Illinois University–Carbondale Jay Christiansen, California State University–Northridge

Lynda Clark, Maple Woods Community College Robert Cohn, Long Island University Brendan G. Coleman, Mankato State University Andrea Compton, St. Charles Community College John Cooper, University of Kentucky Donna Cox, Monroe Community College Christine Leigh Cranford, East Carolina University Tena Crews, State University of West Georgia Smiljka Cubelic, Indiana University–South Bend Carla Dando, Idaho State University Aparajita De, University of Maryland–College Park Susan H. Delagrange, The Ohio State University Mark DelMaramo, Thiel College Moira E. W. Dempsey, Oregon State University Gladys DeVane, Indiana University Linda Di Desidero, University of Maryland–University College Veronica Dufresne, Finger Lakes Community College Jose A. Duran, Riverside Community College Dorothy J. Dykman, Point Loma Nazarene College Marilyn Easter, San Jose State University Anna Easton, Indiana University Donna Everett, Morehead State University Joyce Ezrow, Ann Arundel Community College Susan Fiechtner, Texas A&M University Susan Finnerty, John Carroll University Bartlett Finney, Park University–Parkville Mary Ann Firmin, Oregon State University

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xxviii

Acknowledgments

Melissa Fish, American River College W. Clark Ford, Middle Tennessee State University Louisa Fordyce, Westmoreland County Community College Paula J. Foster, Foster Communication Mildred Franceschi, Valencia Community College–West Camp Linda Fraser, California State University–Fullerton Silvia Fuduric, Wayne State University Lynda Fuller, Wilmington University Robert D. Gieselman, University of Illinois Cheryl Glenn, Pennsylvania State University Wade Graves, Grayson County College Mary Greene, Prince George’s Community College Jane Greer Daryl Grider, West Virginia State College Peter Hadorn, Virginia Commonwealth University Ed Hagar, Belhaven College Elaine Hage, Forsythe Technical Community College Barbara Hagler, Southern Illinois University Robert Haight, Kalamazoo Valley Community College Mark Hama, Angelo State University Les Hanson, Red River Community College–Canada Kathy Harris, Northwestern State University Mark Harstein, University of Illinois Maxine Hart, Baylor University Vincent Hartigan, New Mexico State University David Hawes, Owens Community College Charles Hebert, The University of South Carolina Tanya Henderson, Howard University

Ruth Ann Hendrickson Paulette Henry, Howard University Deborah Herz, Salve Regina University Kathy Hill, Sam Houston State University Robert Hill, University of LaVerne Kenneth Hoffman, Emporia State University Elizabeth Hoger, Western Michigan University Carole A. Holden, County College of Morris Carlton Holte, California State University–Sacramento Glenda Hudson, California State University–Bakersfield Elizabeth Huettman, Cornell University Melissa Ianetta, University of Southern Indiana Susan Isaacs, Community College of Philadelphia Daphne A. Jameson, Cornell University Elizabeth Jenkins, Pennsylvania State University Carolyn Jewell, Fayetteville State University Lee Jones, Shorter College Paula R. Kaiser, University of North Carolina–Greensboro Jeremy Kemp, San Jose State University Robert W. Key, University of Phoenix Joy Kidwell, Oregon State University Susan E. Kiner, Cornell University Lisa Klein, The Ohio State University Gary Kohut, University of North Carolina–Charlotte Sarah McClure Kolk, Hope College Patti Koluda, Yakima Valley Community College Keith Kroll, Kalamazoo Valley Community College Milton Kukon, Southern Vermont College

Acknowledgments

Linda M. LaDuc, University of Massachusetts–Amherst Suzanne Lambert, Broward Community College Jamie Strauss Larsen, North Carolina State University Newton Lassiter, Florida Atlantic University Barry Lawler, Oregon State University Sally Lawrence, East Carolina University Cheryl Ann Laws, City University Gordon Lee, University of Tennessee Paul Lewellan, Augustana College Kathy Lewis-Adler, University of North Alabama Luchen Li, Iowa State University Barbara Limbach, Chadron State College Bobbi Looney, Black Hills State University Dana Loewy, California State University–Fullerton Andrea A. Lunsford, Stanford University Catherine Macdermott, Saint Edwards University Elizabeth Macdonald, Thunderbird Graduate School of International Management John T. Maguire, University of Illinois Michael D. Mahler, Montana State University Margaret Mahoney, Iowa State University Gianna Marsella Pamela L. Martin, The Ohio State University Iris Washburn Mauney, High Point College Patricia McClure, West Virginia State College Kelly McCormick-Sullivan, Saint John Fisher College Nancie McCoy-Burns, University of Idaho

Brian R. McGee, Texas Tech University Virginia Melvin, Southwest Tennessee Community College Yvonne Merrill, University of Arizona Julia R. Meyers, North Carolina State University Julianne Michalenko, Robert Morris University Paul Miller, Davidson College Scott Miller Danielle Mitchell, Pennsylvania State University–Fayette Karl Mitchell, Queens College–CUNY Mialisa Moline, University of Wisconsin–River Falls Jayne Moneysmith, Kent State University–Stark Josef Moorehead, California State University–Sacramento Gregory Morin, University of Nebraska–Omaha Evelyn Morris, Mesa Community College Rodger Glenn Morrison, Troy University Frederick K. Moss, University of Wisconsin–Waukesha Andrea Muldoon, University of Wisconsin–Stout Anne Nail, Amarillo College Frank P. Nemecek, Jr., Wayne State University Cheryl Noll, Eastern Illinois University Nancy Nygaard, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee Robert Von der Osten, Ferris State University Carole Clark Papper Greg Pauley, Moberly Area Community College Jean E. Perry, University of Southern California Linda N. Peters, University of West Florida

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xxx

Acknowledgments

Florence M. Petrofes, University of Texas–El Paso Melinda Phillabaum, IUPUI–Indianapolis Evelyn M. Pierce, Carnegie Mellon University Cathy Pleska, West Virginia State College Susan Plutsky, California State University–Northridge Virginia Polanski, Stonehill College Janet Kay Porter, Leeward Community College Susan Prenzlow, Minnesota State University–Mankato Brenda Price, Bucks County Community College Brenner Pugh, Virginia Commonwealth University David Ramsey, Southeastern Louisiana University Greg Rapp, Portland Community College Kathryn C. Rentz, University of Cincinnati Janetta Ritter, Garland County Community College Naomi Ritter, Indiana University Jeanette Ritzenthaler, New Hampshire College Betty Jane Robbins, University of Oklahoma Cassie Rockwell, Santa Monica College Ralph Roberts, University of West Florida Carol Roever, Missouri Western State College Alisha Rohde Deborah Roper, California State University–Dominguez Hills Mary Jane Ryals, Florida State University Mary Saga, University of Alaska–Fairbanks Betty Schroeder, Northern Illinois University Nancy Schullery, Western Michigan University

Kelly Searsmith, University of Illinois Sherry Sherrill, Forsythe Technical Community College Frank Smith, Harper College Pamela Smith, Florida Atlantic University Don Soucy Helen W. Spain, Wake Technical Community College Valarie Spiser-Albert, University of Texas–San Antonio Janet Starnes, University of Texas–Austin Natalie Stillman-Webb, University of Utah–Salt Lake City Ron Stone, DeVry University Bruce Todd Strom, University of Indianapolis Judith A. Swartley, Lehigh University Christine Tachick, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee Mel Tarnowski, Macomb Community College Bette Tetreault, Dalhousie University Barbara Z. Thaden, St. Augustine’s College Lori Townsend, Niagara County Community College–Sanborn Linda Travis, Ferris State University Lisa Tyler, Sinclair Community College Donna Vasa, University of Nebraska–Lincoln David A. Victor, Eastern Michigan University Catherine Waitinas, University of Illinois–Champaign-Urbana Vicky Waldroupe, Tusculum College Randall Waller, Baylor University George Walters, Emporia State University Jie Wang, University of Illinois–Chicago Craig Warren, Pennsylvania State– Erie Behrend College Linda Weavil, Elon College

Acknowledgments

Judy West, University of Tennessee–Chattanooga Paula Weston Gail S. Widner, University of South Carolina Rebecca Wiggenhorn, Clark State Community College Andrea Williams Paula Williams, Arkansas Northeastern College Marsha Daigle Williamson, Spring Arbor University

Bennie Wilson, University of Texas– San Antonio Rosemary Wilson, Washtenaw Community College Janet Winter, Central Missouri State University Annette Wyandotte, Indiana University Southeast Bonnie Thames Yarbrough, University of North Carolina–Greensboro Sherilyn K. Zeigler, Hawaii Pacific University

I’m pleased to know that the book has worked so well for so many people and appreciative of suggestions for ways to make it even more useful in this edition. I especially want to thank the students who have allowed me to use their letters and memos, whether or not they allowed me to use their real names in the text. I am grateful to all the businesspeople who have contributed. The companies where I have done research and consulting work have given me insights into the problems and procedures of business and administrative communication. Special acknowledgment is due Joseph T. Ryerson & Son, Inc., where Kitty created the Writing Skills program that ultimately became the first draft of this book. And I thank the organizations that permitted McGraw-Hill/ Irwin to reproduce their documents in this book and in the ancillaries. Special thanks go to three assistants. Jackie Hoermann, an Iowa State University graduate student, performed research wonders, checked all citations, wrote some sidebars, and sorted reams of material into useful bundles. Danica Schieber, another Iowa State University graduate student, wrote new exercises. Jacob Rawlins, an assistant professor in the College of Business at the University of Louisville, wrote all of the Newsworthy Communications and updated Chapter 8, “Working and Writing in Teams,” as well as the three chapters of the job unit: “Building Résumés,” “Writing Job Application Letters,” and “Interviewing, Writing Follow-Up Messages, and Succeeding in the Job.” The publisher, McGraw-Hill/Irwin, provided strong editorial and staff support. I wish to thank Anke Weekes for editorial help, Kelly Pekelder for caring so much, as well as Diane Nowaczyk, Debra Kubiak, and Susan Lombardi for the appearance of the book and website. Further thanks go to Sarah Evertson for finding such wonderful photos and Rebecca Lazure for her great support and triage abilities while guiding BAC through production, and Michael Gedatus and Elizabeth Steiner for their marketing abilities. And, finally, I thank my husband, Jim, who provided support, research, editorial assistance, proofreading, and major formatting work.

Continuing the Conversation This edition incorporates the feedback I’ve received from instructors who used earlier editions. Tell me about your own success stories teaching Business and Administrative Communication. I look forward to hearing from you! Donna S. Kienzler [emailprotected]

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C O N T E N T S Preface

vii

How to Use This Book

PA R T O N E

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages 1

Succeeding in Business Communication 2 Newsworthy Communication

Newsworthy Communication

Benefits of Good Communication Skills “I’ll Never Have to Write Because...” Communicating on the Job

Identifying Your Audiences

Analyzing Your Audience

The Cost of Communication Costs of Poor Communication

Lost Goodwill

Analyzing the Organizational Culture and the Discourse Community 32 Choosing Channels to Reach Your Audience

Using Technology for Communication

2. How Much Information Does the Audience Need? 38

Understanding and Analyzing Business Communication Situations 13

Gather Knowledge and Brainstorm Solutions. 14 15

Revise Your Draft to Create a Friendly, Businesslike, Positive Style. 17 Edit Your Draft for Standard English; Double-Check Names and Numbers. 17 Use the Response You Get to Plan Future Messages. 17 Summary by Learning Objectives Notes 23

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4. What Positive Aspects Can You Emphasize? 39

6. How Will the Audience Use the Document? 41

Organize Your Information to Fit Your Audiences, Your Purposes, and the Situation. 16 Make Your Document Visually Inviting.

3. What Obstacles Must You Overcome? 39 5. What Are the Audience’s Expectations about the Appropriate Language, Content, and Organization of Messages? 40

How to Solve Business Communication Problems 14

Answer the Five Questions for Analysis.

1. How Will the Audience Initially React to the Message? 37

Basic Criteria for Effective Messages

Exercises and Cases

Using Audience Analysis to Adapt Your Message

Following Conventions

Analyzing Members of Groups 30 8

Legal Problems

Analyzing Individuals 29

Wasted Time 9 Wasted Efforts

Adapting Your Message to Your Audience 26

Audience Analysis Works

Characteristics of Good Audience Benefits 42 1. Adapt Benefits to the Audience. 42 2. Stress Intrinsic as well as Extrinsic Motivators. 42 3. Prove Benefits with Clear Logic and Explain Them in Adequate Detail. 43 4. Phrase Benefits in You-Attitude. 44 Identifying and Developing Audience Benefits 44 1. Identify the Needs, Wants, and Feelings that May Motivate Your Audience. 44 2. Identify the Objective Features of Your Product or Policy that Could Meet the Needs You’ve Identified. 45

3. Show How the Audience Can Meet Their Needs with the Features of the Policy or Product. 45 Audience Benefits Work

Summary by Learning Objectives Notes

Navigating the Business Communication Environment 86

Writing or Speaking to Multiple Audiences with Different Needs 46 Exercises and Cases

Newsworthy Communication Ethics

Corporate Culture

Interpersonal Communication

Listening 93

Conversational Style 95

Building Goodwill

Newsworthy Communication You-Attitude

Nonverbal Communication 97 Etiquette

Networking

How to Create You-Attitude

Time Management

You-Attitude beyond the Sentence Level Positive Emphasis

100

Techniques 100

Multitasking 102

Trends in Business Communication

How to Create Positive Emphasis 64 How to Check Positive Emphasis Positive Psychology

Data Security

Tone, Power, and Politeness

103

Customer Service

105

Environmental Concern 106

Be Aware of the Power Implications of the Words You Use 69

Globalization and Outsourcing 106 Diversity Teamwork

Trust 69

Making Language Nonsexist

107 107

Job Flexibility 108

Reducing Bias in Business Communication

102

Electronic Privacy

Work/Family Balance 105

Use Courtesy Titles for People You Don’t Know Well 69

Using Technology to Build Goodwill

Innovation and Entrepreneurship 108

Big Data

109

Rapid Rate of Change 110

Making Language Nonracist and Nonageist 74 Talking about People with Disabilities and Diseases 75

Summary by Learning Objectives

Choosing Bias-Free Photos and Illustrations 76

Notes

Summary by Learning Objectives Exercises and Cases Notes

102

Exercises and Cases

110

111

115

PA R T T W O

The Communication Process 5

Planning, Composing, and Revising Newsworthy Communication

119

The Ways Good Writers Write

120

Activities in the Composing Process Using Your Time Effectively

122

118

Brainstorming, Planning, and Organizing Business Documents 123 Writing Good Business and Administrative Documents 123 Business Styles 124

120

The Plain Language Movement 125 Individualized Styles 126 xxxiii

Contents

xxxiv

Half-Truth 1: “Write as You Talk.” 127

Using Software Programs for Creating Document Designs 169

Half-Truth 2: “Never Use I.” 127

Designing Brochures

Half-Truths about Business Writing

127

Half-Truth 3: “Never Use You.” 127

Analyzing Your Rhetorical Situation 169

Half-Truth 4: “Never Begin a Sentence with And or But.” 127

Drafting the Text 170

Half-Truth 5: “Never End a Sentence with a Preposition.” 128

Creating the Design 170

Selecting Appropriate Visuals 170 Printing the Brochure 171

Half-Truth 6: “Never Have a Sentence with More than 20 Words, or a Paragraph with More than 8 Lines.” 128

Designing Infographics

Researching Your Topic 172 Finding Visuals 172

Half-Truth 8: “Business Writing Does Not Document Sources.” 128 Ten Ways to Make Your Writing Easier to Read As You Choose Words

As You Write and Revise Paragraphs

Designing Web Pages

Revising, Editing, and Proofreading

141

What to Look for When You Revise What to Look for When You Edit

Attracting and Maintaining Attention 174 Providing Easy Navigation 175 Following Conventions 175 Increasing Accessibility 176

142

Testing the Design for Usability

144

Exercises and Cases

146

Notes

147

Readability Formulas

147

Summary by Learning Objectives Exercises and Cases

149

184

Communicating across Cultures 186 Global Business

Notes 156

Newsworthy Communication

187

189

Local Culture Adaptations 189

158

Outsourcing 190

159

International Career Experience

The Importance of Effective Design as Part of the Writing Process 160

Diversity in North America

Design and Conventions

Values, Beliefs, and Practices

Levels of Design

Ways to Look at Culture

161

162

1. Use White Space

163

191 194

194

Body Language 196

163

Touch 197

2. Use Headings 166

Space

3. Limit the Use of Words Set in All Capital Letters 166 4. Use No More than Two Fonts in a Single Document 166 5. Decide Whether to Justify Margins

190

192

Nonverbal Communication

Guidelines for Document Design

177

178

Newsworthy Communication

150

Designing Documents

176

Summary by Learning Objectives

145

Getting and Using Feedback

174

Creating a Usable Home Page 174

140

141

Using Boilerplate

Putting It All Together 173

128

132

Organizational Preferences for Style

How to Catch Typos

Drafting the Text 173

129

As You Write and Revise Sentences

171

Analyzing Your Rhetorical Situation 171

Half-Truth 7: “Big Words Impress People.” 128

169

167

6. Put Important Elements in the Top Left and Lower Right Quadrants 168 7. Use a Grid to Unify Graphic Elements 8. Use Highlighting, Decorative Devices, and Color in Moderation 168

168

197

Time 197 Other Nonverbal Symbols 198 Oral Communication

199

Understatement and Exaggeration 200 Compliments 200 Approaches to Negatives

200

Writing to International Audiences

200

Learning More about International Business Communication 202

Contents

Summary by Learning Objectives Exercises and Cases Notes

203

Criticism Responses 225

203

You-Attitude in Conflict Resolution 226

209

Effective Meetings

227

Technology in Teams

Working and Writing in Teams Newsworthy Communication Team Interactions

214

Roles in Teams

215

Leadership in Teams

212

Technologies for Scheduling and Assignments 229 Technologies for Collaboration 229 Collaborative Writing

Composing the Drafts 231

217

Revising the Document 231

219

Peer Pressure and Groupthink Working on Diverse Teams

229

Planning the Work and the Document 230

216

Characteristics of Successful Student Teams

Conflict Resolution

228

Technologies for Meetings 228

213

Decision-Making Strategies Feedback Strategies

xxxv

219

Editing and Proofreading the Document 231 Making the Team Process Work 232

220

Summary by Learning Objectives

221

Exercises and Cases

222

Steps in Conflict Resolution

Notes

223

233

234

240

PA R T T H R E E

Basic Business Messages 9

Making Subject Lines Concise 260

Sharing Informative and Positive Messages with Appropriate Technology 242 Newsworthy Communication

Making Subject Lines Appropriate for the Pattern of Organization 261 Pointers for E-mail Subject Lines 261

243

Managing the Information in Your Messages 262

Purposes of Informative and Positive Messages Communication Hardware Smartphones

245

245 246

Story in Informative Messages

246 246

Information Overload

246

Using Common Media

265

Varieties of Informative and Positive Messages

266

Transmittals 266

248

Face-to-Face Contacts

Summaries 266

248

Thank-You and Positive Feedback Notes 268

248

Positive Responses to Complaints 268

Instant Messaging and Text Messaging

249

Wikis 250 Social Media

265

Humor in Informative Messages

Videoconferences

Phone Calls

Using Benefits in Informative and Positive Messages 263 Ending Informative and Positive Messages 264

Portable Media Players Tablets

244

Solving a Sample Problem Problem

250

E-mails, Letters, and Memos

Analysis of the Problem 270 254

Organizing Informative and Positive Messages

Discussion of the Sample Solutions 271 257

Subject Lines for Informative and Positive Messages 258 Making Subject Lines Specific

269

270

258

Summary by Learning Objectives Exercises and Cases Notes

284

274

Contents

xxxvi

10 Delivering Negative Messages Newsworthy Communication

Analyzing Persuasive Situations

286

1. What Do You Want People to Do? 326

287

Purposes of Negative Messages Organizing Negative Messages

2. What Objections, If Any, Will the Audience Have? 326

288 289

3. How Strong Is Your Case? 326

Giving Bad News to Clients and Customers 289 Giving Bad News to Superiors 290 Giving Bad News to Peers and Subordinates The Parts of a Negative Message Subject Lines Buffers

325

291

294

4. What Kind of Persuasion Is Best for the Situation? 328 5. What Kind of Persuasion Is Best for the Organization and the Culture? 329 Choosing a Persuasive Strategy

294

331

Reasons 295

Why Threats and Punishment Are Less Effective Than Persuasion 331

Refusals

Making Persuasive Direct Requests

296

Alternatives Endings Apologies

Writing Persuasive Problem-Solving Messages 333

297

Subject Lines for Problem-Solving Messages 334

297

Developing a Common Ground 334

298

Tone in Negative Messages

Explaining the Solution 336

299

Alternative Strategies for Negative Situations

Recasting the Situation as a Positive Message

Varieties of Negative Messages 302

Rejections and Refusals

303

340

Varieties of Persuasive Messages Performance Reviews

304

340

Letters of Recommendation 343 Sales and Fund-Raising Messages

345

Organizing a Sales or Fund-Raising Message 345

Using Technology for Negative Messages

305

306

Strategy in Sales Messages and Fund-Raising Appeals 350 Writing Style 353

Problem 306 Analysis of the Problem

Technology and Persuasion

307

Discussion of the Sample Solutions Summary by Learning Objectives Exercises and Cases

Offering a Reason for the Audience to Act Promptly 338 Tone in Persuasive Messages

Disciplinary Notices and Negative Performance Reviews 304

Solving a Sample Problem

301

Building Emotional Appeal 339

302

Claims and Complaints

Dealing with Objections 336

300

Recasting the Situation as a Persuasive Message 302

Layoffs and Firings

332

307

Solving a Sample Problem Problem

310

356 357

357

Analysis of the Problem 357

311

Discussion of the Sample Solutions 358

Notes 320

Summary by Learning Objectives

11 Crafting Persuasive Messages Newsworthy Communication

Exercises and Cases Notes

323

Purposes of Persuasive Messages

322

324

371

363

361

Contents

xxxvii

PA R T F O U R

The Job Hunt 12 Building Résumés

“I Was Laid Off.” 405

374

Newsworthy Communication A Time Line for Job Hunting

“I Was Fired.” 405

375

Electronic Résumés

376

Evaluating Your Strengths and Interests Conducting a Job Search

377

Posting Your Résumé on the Web 407

378

Using the Internet Effectively in Your Job Search Building Relationships through Networking

380

Building Relationships through Internships

380

Establishing a Reputation Online

378

383

Be Prepared with an Excellent Traditional Résumé and Cover Letter 384 Guidelines for Résumés Length Details

384

419

13 Writing Job Application Letters 420 Newsworthy Communication

421

How Content Differs in Job Letters and Résumés Tapping into the Hidden Job Market

424

Content and Organization for Job Application Letters 426 How to Organize Solicited Letters 427

386

Writing Style

How to Organize Prospecting Letters 429

387

First Paragraphs of Solicited Letters 429

Key Words 387 Layout and Design Kinds of Résumés

First Paragraphs of Prospecting Letters 432

388

Showing a Knowledge of the Position and the Company 433

389

What to Include in a Résumé

391

Name and Contact Information Career Objective

422

How to Find Out about Employers and Jobs 423

Referral Interviews

386

391

392

Summary of Qualifications Education

410

411

Information Interviews

385

Emphasis

408

Summary by Learning Objectives Notes

381

Innovative Uses of the Internet in Job Searches

Honesty

Exercises and Cases

A Caution about Blogs, Social Networking Sites, and Internet Tracking 382

How Employers Use Résumés

406

Sending Your Résumé Electronically 406

Writing the Last Paragraph 434 393

E-mail Application Letters

393

Honors and Awards

Showing What Separates You from Other Applicants 433 435

Creating a Professional Image 396

437

Writing Style 437

Experience

397

Positive Emphasis 437

Other Skills

401

You-Attitude 438

Activities

401

Paragraph Length and Unity 439

Portfolio

402

Letter Length 439

References

402

Editing and Proofreading 439

What Not to Include in a Résumé Dealing with Difficulties

403

Follow-Up 440 Application Essays

“I Don’t Have Any Experience.”

403

440

Social Networking and Personal Websites 441

“All My Experience Is in My Family’s Business.” 404

Summary by Learning Objectives

“I Want to Change Fields.”

Exercises and Cases

404

“I’ve Been Out of the Job Market for a While.” 404

Notes

450

442

Contents

xxxviii

Traditional Interview Questions and Answers 463

14 Interviewing, Writing Follow-Up Messages, and Succeeding in theJob 452 Newsworthy Communication Interview Channels

Kinds of Interviews

Behavioral Interviews

Phone Interviews

453

Interview Strategy

454

457

Travel Planning

473

Deciding Which Offer to Accept 476

457

Dealing with Rejection 477

458

Starting Your Career

Attire 458

477

Your First Full-Time Job 477

Professional Materials Interview Practice Interview Customs Behavior

473

Negotiating for Salary and Benefits 474

457

Elevator Speech

472

Following Up with Phone Calls and Written Messages 473

456

Final Research

470

Group Interviews

Final Steps for a Successful Job Search

456

Interview Preparation

Stress Interviews Multiple Interviews

455

Video Interviews

469

Situational Interviews 470

454

Campus Interviews

469

459

A Long-Term Strategy 478

460

Summary by Learning Objectives

460

Exercises and Cases

460

Notes

Meal Etiquette Note-Taking

479

480

484

461 462

Interview Segments

463

PA R T F I V E

Proposals and Reports 15 Researching Proposals and Reports Newsworthy Communication Varieties of Reports Report Problems

Summary by Learning Objectives

488

Exercises and Cases

489

Notes

490

Research Strategies for Reports 495

496

Conducting Research Interviews

502

505

Newsworthy Communication

519 520

Guidelines for Creating Effective Visuals and Data Displays 521 2. Determine the Story You Want to Tell. 521

Observing Customers and Users 505 Source Citation and Documentation

492

1. Check the Quality of the Data. 521

Using Online Networks 505 Using Technology for Research

510

516

When to Use Visuals and Data Displays

Analyzing and Designing Surveys Using Focus Groups

509

16 Creating Visuals and Data Displays 518

492

Finding Information Online and in Print Evaluating Web Sources

Incorporating Quotations 508 Using Common Formats 509

487

The Report Production Process

486

506 507

3. Choose the Right Visual or Data Display for the Story. 522 4. Follow Conventions. 524

Contents

5. Use Color and Decoration with Restraint. 6. Be Accurate and Ethical.

524

xxxix

Analyzing Data and Information for Reports 577

526

Evaluating the Source of the Data 578

Integration of Visuals and Data Displays into YourText 527

Choosing the Best Data 579

Software Programs for Creating Visuals and Data Displays 528

Analyzing Patterns 580

Analyzing Numbers 580

Conventions for Specific Visuals and Data Displays Tables

Checking Your Logic 581 529

529

Choosing Information for Reports

582

Organizing Information in Reports

583

Pie Charts

529

Patterns for Organizing Information 583

Bar Charts

530

Patterns for Specific Varieties of Reports 587

Line Graphs

531

Gantt Charts

532

1. Use Clear, Engaging Writing. 592

Photographs

532

2. Keep Repetition to a Minimum. 593

Drawings

Presenting Information Effectively in Reports 591

533

3. Introduce Sources and Visuals. 593

Maps 534 Infographics

4. Use Forecasting, Transitions, Topic Sentences, and Headings. 593

534

Dynamic Displays

535

Writing Formal Reports

Summary by Learning Objectives Exercises and Cases Notes

535

596

Title Page 597

536

Letter or Memo of Transmittal 607

548

Table of Contents 608 List of Illustrations 608

17 Writing Proposals and Progress Reports 550 Newsworthy Communication Defining Proposals

Background or History 611 Body

552

Proposal Questions

Appendixes

553

Exercises and Cases

555

Proposals for Businesses

555 557

562

564 566

Summary by Learning Objectives

Adapting Your Ideas to the Audience 625 568

568

569

Choosing Information to Include 625 Choosing Data

626

Choosing Demonstrations

572

Organizing Your Information

18 Analyzing Information and Writing Reports 574 Newsworthy Communication Using Your Time Efficiently

Identifying Purposes in Oral Presentations 623 Choosing the Kind of Presentation 624

568

Recommendation Progress Reports

Notes

621

Planning a Strategy for Your Presentation 623

Chronological Progress Reports

Exercises and Cases

19 Making Oral Presentations 620 Comparing Written and Oral Messages 622

Business Plans and Other Proposals for Funding 563

Task Progress Reports

619

Newsworthy Communication

562

Writing Progress Reports

Notes

612

613

557

Preparing the Budget and Costs Sections Sales Proposals

611

Summary by Learning Objectives

Proposals for Class Research Projects

Writing Proposal Varieties

611

Conclusions and Recommendations 611

552

554

Organizing Proposals

608

Introduction 610

551

Brainstorming for Writing Proposals Proposal Style

Executive Summary

575

576

626 626

Planning a Strong Opening 626 Structuring the Body 628 Planning a Strong Conclusion 629 Planning Visuals

629

Designing PowerPoint Slides 630

Contents

Creating a Prezi

632

Understanding Punctuation

Using Figures and Tables

633

Using Technology Effectively

Punctuating Sentences

633

Delivering an Effective Presentation Dealing with Fear

Run-on Sentences 665 Fused Sentences 665

635

Sentence Fragments 665

Developing a Good Speaking Voice Standing and Gesturing

635

Punctuation within Sentences

636

Apostrophe 666

Using Notes and Visuals

637

Colon 666

Involving Your Audience

637

Comma 667

Practicing

638

Handling Questions

Dash 638 639

Summary by Learning Objectives Notes

668

Parentheses 668 641

642

Period 669 Semicolon 669

647

Special Punctuation Marks

Appendixes A Formatting Letters and E-mail Messages 648 Formats for Letters

649

Formats for Envelopes

665

Hyphen 668

Making Group Presentations Exercises and Cases

663

Comma Splices 664

634

Using Eye Contact

663

Quotation Marks

669

Square Brackets

670

669

Ellipses 670 Italics and Underlining 670 Writing Numbers and Dates

671

Words That Are Often Confused

654

Formats for E-mail Messages

Proofreading Symbols 654

State and Province Abbreviations

Exercises and Cases

671

677 678

657

C Citing and Documenting Sources 683 B Writing Correctly Using Grammar Agreement Case

658

659

American Psychological Association (APA) Format 685 Modern Language Association (MLA) Format

659 Glossary

661

Dangling Modifier Misplaced Modifier Parallel Structure Predication Errors

662 662 662 663

692

Photo Credits Name Index

702 703

Company Index Subject Index

708 712

685

Business and Administrative Communication

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How to Use This Book ■

■

■ ■

■

Chapter outlines, learning objectives, and headings all provide previews of the contents. They can give you hooks on which to hang the information you are reading. Examples of written documents provide illustrations of effective and ineffective communications. Comments in red ink highlight problems; those in blue ink note effective practices. Terminology is defined in the glossary at the end of the book. Sidebars provide workplace examples of ideas discussed in the text. They are categorized for you by the icons that appear beside them. A gold star with any icon signifies a classic example. • On-the-job examples have briefcase icons. • Ethics and legal examples have gavel icons. • Websites have an @ sign. • Technology examples have smartphone icons. • International examples have globe icons. • Fun examples have balloon icons. Chapter summaries at the end of each chapter, and review questions at the beginning of each set of chapter exercises, help you review the chapters for retention.

Succeeding in Business Communication

Chapter Outline Benefits of Good Communication Skills “I’ll Never Have to Write Because...” Communicating on the Job

How to Solve Business Communication Problems ■ ■ ■

The Cost of Communication Costs of Poor Communication ■

Wasted Time ■ Wasted Efforts ■ Lost Goodwill ■ Legal Problems

Basic Criteria for Effective Messages Using Technology for Communication Following Conventions Understanding and Analyzing Business Communication Situations

■ ■ ■ ■

Gather Knowledge and Brainstorm Solutions. Answer the Five Questions for Analysis. Organize Your Information to Fit Your Audiences, Your Purposes, and the Situation. Make Your Document Visually Inviting. Revise Your Draft to Create a Friendly, Businesslike, Positive Style. Edit Your Draft for Standard English; Double-Check Names and Numbers. Use the Response You Get to Plan FutureMessages.

Summary by Learning Objectives

NEWSWORTHY COMMUNICATION Costly Miscommunications: Approaching $50 Billion for Bank of America

oorly done business communications can have global consequences, as well as huge penalties. Deceptive communications about mortgages played a significant role in the financial crisis of 2008 and the ensuing global recession. Bank of America became a large player in the debacle when it bought Countrywide Financial, a major mortgage company involved in the foreclosurefuror. BofA’s costs relating to the mortgage fiasco are approaching $50billion. These include

■ A $1.3 billion settlement with Fannie Mae. ■ An $11.8 billion payment as its share of a $25 billion settlement with four other mortgage servicers for mortgage abuses, including business communication abuses such as deceptive loan practices, improper documentation, and false statements about foreclosure reviews. ■ An $8.5 billion agreement with bondholders. ■ Billions of dollars to defend itself against lawsuits claiming Countrywide

was dishonest about the quality of its mortgage securities. In addition, BofA settled for $2.43 billion a lawsuit accusing the bank of making misleading statements to investors about its Merrill Lynch acquisition.

Sources: Shayndi Raice, Nick Timiraos, and Dan Fitzpatrick, “Big Banks Settle Mortgage Hangover,” Wall Street Journal, January 8, 2013, A1–2; and Dan Fitzpatrick, Christian Berthelsen, and Robin Sidel, “BofA Takes New Crisis-Era Hit,” Wall Street Journal, September 29, 2012, http://online.wsj.com/article/ SB10000872396390443843904578024110468736042.html.

Learning Objectives

Communication Is Key to Pay How can you make more money at your job? The number one way, according to the Wall Street Journal, is to “listen to your boss.” Specifically, do the work your boss wants done, follow directions, work hard, and let your boss know what you have accomplished. Employees who follow this method collect raises at a rate of 9.9%, while average performers receive 3.6% and poor performers get 1.3%, according to one survey. Just as important is to make sure you ask your manager to define expectations. Don’t assume you know what your manager wants. Make sure you understand what your manager considers an outstanding performance in your position. Adapted from Perri Capell, “10 Ways to Get the Most Pay out of Your Job,” Wall Street Journal, September 18, 2006, R1.

After studying this chapter, you will know LO 1-1

What the benefits of good communication are.

LO 1-2

Why you need to be able to communicate well.

LO 1-3

What the costs of communication are.

LO 1-4

What the costs of poor communication are.

LO 1-5

What the basic criteria for effective messages are.

LO 1-6

What role conventions play in business communication.

LO 1-7

How to solve business communication problems.

ommunication is a vital part of business. As you will see in this and later chapters, missteps in handling business communications can cost organizations millions, and even billions, of dollars. The amount of business communication is staggering. The U.S. Postal Service processed 160 billion pieces of mail in 2012, more than half of which were business communications. Advertising mail accounted for 79.5 billion pieces; first-class mail accounted for 68.7 billion,1 many of which were business communications such as bills and insurance documents. When you consider that most of your business communications are electronic or oral, you can start to imagine the staggering number of business communications that people compose, hear, and read. More and more, communications—both professional and personal—are moving to electronic media. ■

According to the Harvard Business Review, “In the past decade the world has gone from a total of 12 billion emails a day to 247 billion.”2

■

The Radicati Group, a technology market research firm, estimates that employees send and receive 110 e-mails a day.3

■

CTIA-The Wireless Association says Americans sent 2.2 trillion text messages in 2012. That averages out to 19 text messages daily per person.4

■

In October 2012, Facebook passed 1 billion monthly users; in November 2012 Twitter passed 200 million monthly users.5

Business depends on communication. People must communicate to plan products and services; hire, train, and motivate workers; coordinate manufacturing and delivery; persuade customers to buy; and bill them for the sale. Indeed, for many businesses and nonprofit and government organizations, the “product” is information or services rather than something tangible. Information and services are created and delivered by communication. In every organization, communication is the way people get work done. Communication takes many forms: face-to-face or phone conversations, informal meetings, presentations, e-mail messages, letters, memos, reports, blogs, tweets, text messaging, social media, and websites. All of these methods are

Chapter 1

Succeeding in Business Communication

forms of verbal communication, or communication that uses words. Nonverbal communication does not use words. Pictures, computer graphics, and company logos are nonverbal. Interpersonal nonverbal signals include how people sit at meetings, how large offices are, and how long someone keeps a visitor waiting.

Benefits of Good Communication Skills

LO 1-1

Good communication is worth every minute it takes and every penny it costs. A study of 335 U.S. and Canadian companies with an average of 13,000 employees each and median annual revenues of $1.8 billion found those companies that best communicated with their employees enjoyed “greater employee engagement and commitment, higher retention and productivity, and—ultimately—better financial performance.... ■

They boasted a 19.4% higher market premium (the degree to which the company’s market value exceeds the cost of its assets).

■

They were 4.5 times more likely to report high levels of employee engagement.

■

They were 20% more likely to report lower turnover rates.”6

A major quality shared by companies at the top of Glassdoor.com’s annual list of best places to work is good communication. This list is compiled from the survey responses of anonymous employees. Even companies laying off employees can rank high on the list if they communicate well. United Space Alliance was fourteenth on the 2012 list, even though it had been laying off thousands since 2009, because of its “good job of explaining and communicating throughout the layoffs.”7 Good communication skills will also benefit you. You may have wonderful ideas for your workplace, but unless you can communicate them to the relevant people, they will get you nowhere. In fact, many experts call communication skills—the ability to persuade, explain complex material, and adapt information to particular audiences—one of the most crucial skills of the new workplace, and a skill that is unlikely to be replaced by a computer. Even in your first job, you’ll communicate. You’ll listen to instructions; you’ll ask questions; you may solve problems with other workers in teams. Even entrylevel jobs require high-level skills in reasoning, mathematics, and communicating. As a result, communication ability consistently ranks first among the qualities that employers look for in college graduates.8 Warren Buffett, chairman of Berkshire Hathaway and ranked among the world’s wealthiest people, told Columbia Business School students that they could increase their value 50% by learning communication skills, and that many of them did not yet have those skills.9 As more people compete for fewer jobs, the ones who will build successful careers are those who can communicate well with customers and colleagues. Robert O. Best, chief information officer of UnumProvident, an insurance corporation, cautioned, “You used to be able to get away with being a technical nerd.... Those days are over.”10 The National Commission on Writing surveyed 120 major corporations, employing nearly 8 million workers. Almost 70% of respondents said that at least two-thirds of their employees have specific writing responsibilities included in their position descriptions. These writing responsibilities include: ■

E-mail (100% of employees).

■

Presentations with visuals, such as PowerPoint slides (100%).

Part 1

Top Level Communication at Amazon Senior executives at Amazon, including CEO Jeff Bezos, begin their meetings by reading six-page paper memos in silence for up to 30 minutes. Bezos believes this communal reading guarantees close attention to the memos. Bezos believes memo writing is an even more important skill to master than close reading. He says, “There is no way to write a six-page, narratively structured memo and not have clear thinking.” Adapted from Adam Lashinsky, “Jeff Bezos: The Ultimate Disrupter,” Fortune, December 3, 2012, 100–02.

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

■

Memos and correspondence (70%).

■

Formal reports (62%).

■

Technical reports (59%).

Respondents also noted that communication functions were least likely to be outsourced.11 Because communication skills are so important, good communicators earn more. Research has shown that among people with two- or four-year degrees, workers in the top 20% of writing ability earn, on average, more than three times as much as workers whose writing falls into the worst 20%.12 Jeffrey Gitomer, business consultant and author of best-selling business books, says there are three secrets to getting known in the business world; all of them are communication skills: writing, e-zining (he reaches over 130,000 subscribers each week), and speaking. He states, “Writing leads to wealth.”13

“I’ll Never Have to Write Because ...”

LO 1-2

Despite the frequency of on-the-job writing and the importance of overall communication skills, college graduates seem to be lacking the necessary writing skills as they enter the workforce. A survey of employers conducted on behalf of the Association of American Colleges and Universities found that writing was one of the weakest skills of college graduates.14 In another large survey, respondents noted that a lack of “effective business communication skills appears to be a major stumbling block among new [job] entrants—even at the college level.”15 Some students think that an administrative assistant will do their writing, that they can use form letters if they do have to write, that only technical skills matter, or that they’ll call or text rather than write. Each of these claims is fundamentally flawed. Claim 1:

An administrative assistant will do all my writing.

Reality:

Because of automation and restructuring, job responsibilities in offices have changed. Today, many offices do not have typing pools. Most secretaries have become administrative assistants with their own complex tasks such as training, research, and database management for several managers. Managers are likely to take care of their own writing, data entry, and phone calls.

Claim 2:

I’ll use form letters or templates when I need to write.

Reality:

A form letter is designed to cover only routine situations, many of which are computerized or outsourced, Also, the higher you rise, the more frequently you’ll face situations that aren’t routine, that demand creative solutions.

Claim 3:

I’m being hired as an accountant, not a writer.

Reality:

Almost every entry-level professional or managerial job requires you to write e-mail messages, speak to small groups, write documents, and present your work for annual reviews. People who do these things well are likely to be promoted beyond the entry level. Employees in jobs as diverse as firefighters, security professionals, and construction project managers are all being told to polish their writing and speaking skills.16

Claim 4:

I’ll just pick up the phone.

Reality:

Important phone calls require follow-up letters or e-mails. People in organizations put things in writing to make themselves visible, to create a record, to convey complex data, to make things convenient for the reader, to save money, and to convey their own messages more effectively. “If it isn’t in writing, it didn’t happen” is a maxim at many companies. Writing is an essential way to record agreements, to make yourself visible, and to let your accomplishments be known.

Chapter 1

Succeeding in Business Communication

Communicating on the Job Communication—oral, nonverbal, and written—goes to both internal and external audiences. Internal audiences are other people in the same organization: subordinates, superiors, peers. External audiences are people outside the organization: customers, suppliers, distributors, unions, stockholders, potential employees, trade associations, special interest groups, government agencies, the press, and the general public. People in organizations produce a large variety of documents. Figures1.1 and 1.2 list a few of the specific documents produced at Ryerson, a company Figure 1.1

Internal Documents Produced in One Organization

Document

Description of document

Purpose(s) of document

Transmittal

Memo accompanying document, telling why it's being forwarded to the receiver

Inform; persuade reader to read document; build image and goodwill

Monthly or quarterly report

Report summarizing profitability, productivity, and problems during period. Used to plan activity for next month or quarter

Inform; build image and goodwill (report is accurate, complete; writer understands company)

Policy and procedure bulletin

Statement of company policies and instructions (e.g., how to enter orders, how to run fire drills)

Inform; build image and goodwill (procedures are reasonable)

Request to deviate from policy and procedure bulletin

Persuasive message arguing that another approach is better for a specific situation than the standard approach

Persuade; build image and goodwill (request is reasonable; writer seeks good of company)

Performance appraisal

Evaluation of an employee's performance

Inform; persuade employee to improve

Memo of congratulations

Congratulations to employees who have won awards, been promoted

Build goodwill

Figure 1.2

External Documents Produced in One Organization

Document

Description of document

Purpose(s) of document

Quotation

Letter giving price for a specific product or service

Inform; build goodwill (price is reasonable)

Claims adjustment

Letter granting or denying customer request to be given credit for defective goods or service

Inform; build goodwill

Job description

Description of qualifications and duties of job. Used for performance appraisals, salaries, and hiring

Inform; persuade good candidates to apply; build goodwill (job duties match level, pay)

10-K report

Report filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission detailing financial information

Inform

Annual report

Report to stockholders summarizing financial information for year

Inform; persuade stockholders to retain stock and others to buy; build goodwill (company is a good corporate citizen)

Thank-you letter

Letter to suppliers, customers, or other people who have helped individuals or the company

Build goodwill

Part 1

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

that fabricates and sells steel, aluminum, other metals, and plastics to a wide variety of industrial clients and has sales offices across the United States, Canada, and China. All of the documents in Figures1.1 and 1.2 have one or more of the three basic purposes of organizational writing: to inform, to request or persuade, and to build goodwill. In fact, most messages have multiple purposes. When you answer a question, for instance, you’re informing, but you also want to build goodwill by suggesting that you’re competent and perceptive and that your answer is correct andcomplete. Business communication involves paper documents, electronic communications, and interpersonal abilities.

The Cost of Communication

LO 1-3

Writing costs money. The annual Social Security statements cost $70 million a year to mail, even with huge economies of scale.17 The cost does not include employee time in the writing and processing, a major expense. Document cycling processes also increase costs. In many organizations, all external documents must be approved before they go out. A major document may cycle from writer to superior to writer to another superior to writer again 10 or more times before final approval. Longer documents can involve large teams of people and take months to write. Large organizations handle so much paper that even small changes to their communication practices amount to millions of dollars. Xerox Global Services Europe touts contractual annual savings of up to 1 million euros for organizations with 4,000 or more employees who switch to its printing services.18 Another significant cost of communication is e-mail storage. In addition to the exponential increase in frequency, e-mails are also growing in size. Many more of them also come with attachments. And businesses are storing much of this huge load on their servers. But the cost of the hardware is only some of the storage cost; a larger cost is administering and maintaining the archives. These costs include downtime when storage systems crash and time spent retrieving lost or corrupted messages.19

Costs of Poor Communication

LO 1-4

Poor communication can cost billions of dollars. ■

Hurricane Katrina caused billions of dollars of damage—damage that was worsened by horrendous miscommunications between federal, state, and private relief organizations (see the sidebar “Hurricane Katrina Storms Communication Lines” on the next page).

■

The space industry has had billion-dollar mistakes—mistakes where miscommunications were major contributing factors as confirmed by official government investigations (see sidebars on pages 10 and 12).

■

Internal and external communication problems contributed greatly to delays in Boeing’s 787 Dreamliner, delays that cost Boeing billions in penalties and caused some customers to switch their orders to Airbus.20

Chapter 1

Succeeding in Business Communication

■

From figures provided by the members of the Business Roundtable, the National Commission on Writing calculated the annual private-sector costs of writing training at $3.1 billion.21 These figures do not include the retail and wholesale trade businesses.

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GlaxoSmithKline was fined $3 billion, the largest payment ever by a drug company, for failing to communicate accurately safety data on some of its popular drugs and for misdirecting the use of others.22

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British Petroleum agreed to a $4 billion fine for its role in the Gulf of Mexico oil spill. That sum is in addition to the $36.5 billion BP had already spent, or committed to spend, in additional fines, cleanup costs, and settlements to individuals and businesses. According to the presidential commission, inadequate communication among British Petroleum, Halliburton, and Transocean, as well as within their own companies, was a contributing factor in BP’s massive oil spill, which caused extensive damage, as well as fatalities, in the Gulf of Mexico.23

Costs of poor communication are not just financial. People died in the explosion of the Columbia space shuttle and British Petroleum’s oil well. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, inaccurate media reports of looting convinced some residents to stay to protect their property instead of evacuating; false reports of shootings at helicopters resulted in some states refusing to send trained emergency workers. Not all communication costs are so dramatic, however. When communication isn’t as good as it could be, you and your organization pay a price in wasted time, wasted effort, lost goodwill, and legal problems.

Hurricane Katrina Storms Communication Lines Hurricane Katrina caused massive destruction to the Gulf Coast. During the storm, communication failures among local, state, and federal officials left their own harm. The main communication problems included these issues: ■

Lack of communication among responding organizations: The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) claimed it was days before the relief agency knew about the thousands of people stranded in the New Orleans ConventionCenter.

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Incompatible communication systems: The lack of coordination and communication caused by these systems put even more lives at risk by delaying assistance where it was most needed. Some rescuers in helicopters were unable to communicate with rescuers in boats. Some National Guard units actually used runners to communicate.

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Inconsistent messages: State and local agency teams received conflicting messages, which led to confusion.

Wasted Time Bad writing takes longer to read as we struggle to understand what we’re reading. How quickly we can comprehend written material is determined by the difficulty of the subject matter and by the document’s organization and writing style. Second, bad writing needs to be rewritten. Poorly written documents frequently cycle to others for help, thus wasting time of people other than the original writer. Third, ineffective communication may obscure ideas so that discussions and decisions are needlessly drawn out. Fourth, unclear or incomplete messages may require the receiver to gather more information. Some receivers may Communication failures increased the damage caused by Hurricane Katrina.

The massive communication problems led to an entire chapter on communication in the U.S. House of Representatives report on the Hurricane Katrina disaster. Adapted from U.S. House of Representatives, A Failure of Initiative: Final Report of the Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina, 109th Cong., 2d sess. (Washington, DC, February 15, 2006), http:// www.gpoaccess.gov/ katrinareport/mainreport.pdf.

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

Part 1

Business Communication Lessons from Mars

not bother to do so, leading to wrong decisions or a refusal to act.

The Mars Climate Orbiter spacecraft lost contact with NASA mission control just after it arrived at Mars. A subsequent investigation revealed the main problem was a minor software programming error caused by communication errors. Like many business projects, the Mars Climate Orbiter involved a wide range of people in a range of locations. The programmers who wrote the software that controlled the spacecraft’s engines worked in Great Britain and used metric measurements in their calculations, while the engineers who made the satellite’s engines worked in the United States and used English measurements. Both teams assumed they were using the same measurement standards, neither team made any attempt to check, and no one else caught the error. With that failure, NASA lost a $125 million satellite and years of effort, while gaining a major public embarrassment. Adapted from NASA MCO Mission Failure Mishap Investigation Board, Mars Climate Orbiter Mishap Investigation Board Phase I Report, November 10, 1999, ftp:// ftp.hq.nasa.gov/pub/ pao/reports/1999/ MCO_report.pdf.

Wasted Efforts Ineffective messages don’t get results. A receiver who has to guess what the sender means may guess wrong. A reader who finds a letter or e-mail unconvincing or insulting simply won’t do what the message asks.

When the Mars Climate Orbiter spacecraft crashed as a result of poor communication, the United States lost a $125 million satellite and years of effort. See sidebar on this page.

Per our conversation, enclosed are two copies of the above-mentioned invoice. Please review and advise. Sincerely, ...

One company sent out past-due bills with the following language: The company wanted money, not advice, but it didn’t say so. The company had to write third and fourth reminders. It waited for its money, lost interest on it—and kept writing letters.

Lost Goodwill Whatever the literal content of the words, every communication serves either to build or to undermine the image the audience has of the communicator. Part of building a good image is taking the time to write correctly. Even organizations that have adopted casual dress still expect writing to appear professional and to be free from typos and grammatical errors. Messages can also create a poor image because of poor audience analysis and inappropriate style. The form letter printed in Figure 1.3 failed because it was stuffy and selfish. The comments in red show specific problems with theletter: ■

The language is stiff and legalistic. Note the sexist “Gentlemen:” and obsolete “Please be advised,” and “herein.”

■

The tone is selfish. The letter is written from the writer’s point of view; there are no benefits for the reader. (The writer says there are, but without a shred of evidence, the claim isn’t convincing.)

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The main point is buried in the middle of the long first paragraph. The middle is the least emphatic part of a paragraph.

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The request is vague. How many references does the supplier want? Are only vendor references OK, or would other credit references, such as banks, work too? Is the name of the reference enough, or is it necessary also to

Chapter 1

Succeeding in Business Communication

specify the line of credit, the average balance, the current balance, the years credit has been established, or other information? What “additional financial information” does the supplier want? Annual reports? Bank balance? Tax returns? The request sounds like an invasion of privacy, not a reasonable business practice. ■

Words are misused (herein for therein), suggesting either an ignorant writer or one who doesn’t care enough about the subject and the reader to use the right word.

You will learn more about tone in Chapter 3 and language in Chapter 5.

Legal Problems Poor communication choices can lead to legal problems for individuals and organizations. The news is full of examples. Papa John’s pizza was hit with a quarter billion dollar lawsuit for text advertisements that customers claimed were spam.24 Capital One Financial, the large credit card company, agreed to pay $210 million to settle allegations that its call center pressured customers into buying credit-protection products such as credit monitoring.25 Individual communications can also have legal consequences. Steamy text messages revealed an affair between Detroit Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick and one of his aides; both the messages and the affair contradicted testimony the mayor had given under oath. Consequences included loss of office, jail time, and a $1 million fine.

Figure 1.3

A Form Letter That Annoyed Customers

Nelson

Manufacturing

600 N. Main Street Indianapolis, IN 46204 www.nelson.comv

Where are date, Inside address? t adding these! No excuse for no

Gentlemen:

Sexist! Stuffy

317-281-3000 fax 317-281-3001

e emphasizes th ader re e th t no writer, main

wrong word (also stuffy)

Please be advised that upon reviewing your credit file with us, we find the information point herein outdated. In an effort to expedite the handling of your future orders with us, and to is buried allow us to open an appropriate line of credit for your company, we ask that you send an updated list of vendor references. Any other additional financial information that you can supply would be to both of our benefits. Prove it!

May we hear from you soon? Sincerely,

What fo in rmation?

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The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

U.S. Representative Mark Foley of Florida resigned after his instant messages to House pages were published. E-mails have helped bring about the fall of many executives, including ■

Senior Enron executives.

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Boeing CEO Harry Stonecipher.

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Hewlett-Packard Chairperson Patricia Dunn.

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Walmart Vice Presidents Julie Roehm and Sean Womack.

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South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford.

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CIA Director David Petraeus.

One San Francisco law firm says 70% of its routine evidence now comes from e-mails.26 In particular, letters, memos, e-mails, and instant messages create legal obligations for organizations. When a lawsuit is filed against an organization, the lawyers for the plaintiffs have the right to subpoena documents written by employees of the organization. These documents may then be used as evidence, for instance, that an employer fired an employee without adequate notice or that a company knew about a safety defect but did nothing to correctit. These documents may also be used as evidence in contexts the writer did not intend. This means a careless writer can create obligations that the organization does not mean to assume. For instance, a letter from a manager telling scouts they may not visit a factory floor because it is too dangerous could be used in a worker’s compensation suit.27 Careful writers and speakers think about the larger social context in which their words may appear. What might those words mean to other people in the field? What might they mean to a judge and jury?

Basic Criteria for Effective Messages

LO 1-5

Good business and administrative communication meets five basic criteria: it’s clear, complete, and correct; it saves the audience’s time; and it builds goodwill. ■

It’s clear. The meaning the audience gets is the meaning the communicator intended. The audience doesn’t have to guess.

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It’s complete. All of the audience questions are answered. The audience has enough information to evaluate the message and act on it.

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It’s correct. All of the information in the message is accurate. The message is free from errors in spelling, grammar, word choice, and sentence structure.

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It saves the audience’s time. The style, organization, and visual or aural impact of the message help the audience read or hear, understand, and act on the information as quickly as possible.

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It builds goodwill. The message presents a positive image of the communicator and his or her organization. It treats the receiver as a person, not a number. It cements a good relationship between the communicator and the receiver.

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Whether a message meets these five criteria depends on the interactions among the communicator, the audience, the purposes of the message, and the situation. No single set of words will work in all possible situations.

Using Technology for Communication Electronic communications continue to play an ever-increasing role in both business and personal contexts. At home, Americans still use TV more than any other media: almost 145 hours a month. They also spend about 28 hours a month on the Internet; the largest chunk of that time is for social networking.28 In the office, more and more communication is done through media such as e-mail and texts. The business world continually embraces all forms of technology that help increase productivity and save money. Almost all office employees are expected to know how to navigate through the web and to use word processing, e-mail, spreadsheet, database, and presentation software. Newer forms of technology, especially social media such as Facebook, Twitter, and texting, are also becoming prominent in business offices. Chapter 2 discusses communication channels in more detail. Chapter 9 discusses how to use various communication technologies effectively.

Following Conventions

LO 1-6

Conventions are widely accepted practices you routinely encounter. Common business communications have conventions. These conventions help people recognize, produce, and interpret different kinds of communications. Each chapter in this textbook presents conventions of traditional business documents. For example, Chapter 13 discusses conventions of job application letters, and Chapter 19 talks about conventions of delivering oral presentations. Conventions change over time. Consider how the conventions governing movies and television have changed just during your lifetime, allowing more explicit sex and violence. Similarly, conventions change in business. Paper memos have mostly given way to e-mails, and some e-mails are being replaced by text messaging. The key to using conventions effectively, despite their changing nature, is to remember that they always need to fit the rhetorical situation—they always need to be adjusted for the particular audience, context, and purpose. For instance, Chapter 10 provides guidelines on constructing negative messages. However, you will need to adapt these guidelines based on the way your organization presents its negative messages. Some organizations will use a more formal tone than others; some present negative news bluntly, while others ease into it more gently. Since every organization will be unique in the conventions they follow, the information presented in this text will provide a basic understanding of common elements for particular genres. You will always need to adjust the basics for your particular needs. The best way to learn conventions in a particular workplace is to see what other workers are doing. How do they communicate with each other? Do their practices change when they communicate with superiors? What kinds of letters and e-mails do they send? How much do they e-mail? What tone is preferred? Close observation will help your communications fit the conventions of your employer.

Understanding and Analyzing Business Communication Situations The best communicators are conscious of the context in which they communicate; they’re aware of options.

Warren Buffett on Good Business Writing “For more than forty years, I’ve studied the documents that public companies file. Too often, I’ve been unable to decipher just what is being said or, worse yet, had to conclude that nothing was being said.... “There are several possible explanations as to why I and others sometimes stumble over an accounting note or indenture description. Maybe we simply don’t have the technical knowledge to grasp what the writer wishes to convey. Or perhaps the writer doesn’t understand what he or she is talking about. In some cases, moreover, I suspect that a less-than-scrupulous issuer doesn’t want us to understand a subject it feels legally obligated to touch upon. “Perhaps the most common problem, however, is that a wellintentioned and informed writer simply fails to get the message across to an intelligent, interested reader. In that case, stilted jargon and complex constructions are usually the villains.... “One unoriginal but useful tip: Write with a specific person in mind. When writing Berkshire Hathaway’s annual report, I pretend that I’m talking to my sisters.... Though highly intelligent, they are not experts in accounting or finance. They will understand plain English, but jargon may puzzle them. My goal is simply to give them the information I would wish them to supply me if our positions were reversed.... “No sibling to write to? Borrow mine: Just begin with ‘Dear Doris and Bertie.’” Quoted from Warren Buffett, Preface to A Plain English Handbook: How to Create Clear SEC Disclosure Documents, by the Office of Investor Education and Assistance (Washington, DC: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, 1998), 1–2, http://www.sec .gov/pdf/handbook.pdf.

Part 1

Ask yourself the following questions:

Think Like a Fox Good problem solvers think like people called foxes by Nate Silver, author of The Signal and the Noise. They are ■

Multidisciplinary: Incorporate ideas from different disciplines and regardless of their origin on the political spectrum.

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

■

What’s at stake—to whom? Think not only about your own needs but also about the concerns your boss and your audience will have. Your message will be most effective if you think of the entire organizational context—and the larger context of shareholders, customers, and regulators. When the stakes are high, you’ll need to take into account people’s feelings as well as objectivefacts.

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Should you send a message? Sometimes, especially when you’re new on the job, silence is the most tactful response. But be alert for opportunities to learn, to influence, to make your case.

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What channel should you use? Paper documents and presentations are formal and give you considerable control over the message. E-mail, texting, tweeting, phone calls, and stopping by someone’s office are less formal. Oral channels are better for group decision making, allow misunderstandings to be cleared up more quickly, and seem more personal. Sometimes you may need more than one message, in more than one channel.

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Adaptable: Find a new approach—or pursue multiple approaches at the same time—if they aren't sure the original one is working.

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Self-critical: Sometimes willing [if rarely happy] to acknowledge mistakes in their predictions and accept the blame for them.

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Tolerant of complexity: See the universe as complicated, perhaps to the point of many fundamental problems being irresolvable or inherently unpredictable.

What should you say? Content for a message may not be obvious. How detailed should you be? Should you repeat information that the audience already knows? The answers will depend on the kind of message, your purposes, audiences, and the corporate culture. And you’ll have to figure these things out for yourself, without detailed instructions.

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How should you say it? How you arrange your ideas—what comes first, second, and last—and the words you use shape the audience’s response to what you say.

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Cautious: Express their predictions in probabilistic terms and qualify their opinions. Empirical: Rely more on observation than theory.

From The Signal and the Noise, by Nate Silver, Copyright © 2012 by Nate Silver. Used by permission of The Penguin Press, a division of Penguin Group (USA) LLC. Bullets quoted from Nate Silver, The Signal and the Noise: Why So Many Predictions Fail—But Some Don’t (New York: Penguin, 2012), 54.

How to Solve Business Communication Problems LO 1-7 When you’re faced with a business communication problem, you need to develop a solution that will both solve the organization’s problem and meet the psychological needs of the people involved. The strategies in this section will help you solve the problems in this book. Almost all of these strategies can also be applied to problems you encounter on the job. Use this process to create good messages: ■

Gather knowledge and brainstorm solutions.

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Answer the five questions for analysis in Figure 1.4.

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Organize your information to fit your audiences, your purposes, and the context.

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Make your document visually inviting.

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Revise your draft to create a friendly, businesslike, positive style.

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Edit your draft for standard spelling, punctuation, and grammar; doublecheck names and numbers.

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Use the response you get to plan future messages.

Gather Knowledge and Brainstorm Solutions. Problem solving usually starts by gathering knowledge. What are the facts? What can you infer from the information you’re given? What additional information might be helpful? Where could you get it? What emotional complexities

Chapter 1

Figure 1.4

Succeeding in Business Communication

Questions for Analysis

1. 2. 3. 4.

Who is (are) your audience(s)? What are your purposes in communicating? What information must your message include? How can you build support for your position? What reasons or benefits will your audience find convincing? 5. What aspects of the total situation may be relevant?

are involved? This information will usually start to suggest some solutions, and you should brainstorm other solutions. In all but the very simplest problems, there are multiple possible solutions. The first one you think of may not be best. Consciously develop several solutions. Then measure them against your audience and purposes: Which solution is likely to work best? You will learn more about gathering knowledge in Chapter 15 and more about brainstorming in Chapter 8.

Answer the Five Questions for Analysis. The five questions in Figure 1.4 help you analyze your audience(s), purpose(s), and the organizational context.

1. Who Is (Are) Your Audience(s)? What audience characteristics are relevant for this particular message? If you are writing or speaking to more than one person, how do the people in your audience differ? How much does your audience know about your topic? How will they respond to your message? What objections might they have? Some characteristics of your audience will be irrelevant; focus on ones that matter for this message. Whenever you address several people or a group, try to identify the economic, cultural, or situational differences that may affect how various subgroups may respond to what you have to say. For a more complete audience analysis, see the questions in Chapter 2. 2. What Are Your Purposes in Communicating? What must this message do to meet the organization’s needs? What must it do to meet your own needs? What do you want your audience to do? To think or feel? List all your purposes, major and minor. Even in a simple message, you may have several related purposes: to announce a new policy, to make the audience aware of the policy’s provisions and requirements, and to have them feel that the policy is a good one, that the organization cares about its employees, and that you are a competent communicator and manager. 3. What Information Must Your Message Include? Make a list of the points that must be included; check your draft to make sure you include them all. To include information without emphasizing it, put it in the middle of a paragraph or document and present it as briefly as possible. 4. How Can You Build Support for Your Position? What Reasons or Benefits Will Your Audience Find Convincing? Brainstorm to develop reasons for your decision, the logic behind your argument, and possible benefits to the audience if they do as you ask. Reasons and audience benefits do not have to be monetary. Making the audience’s job easier or more pleasant is a good benefit. In an informative or persuasive message, identify multiple

Part 1

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

audience benefits. In your message, use those that you can develop most easily and effectively. Be sure the benefits are adapted to your audience. Many people do not identify closely with their organizations; the fact that the organization benefits from a policy will help the individual only if the saving or profit is passed directly on to the employees. Instead, savings and profits are often eaten up by returns to stockholders, bonuses to executives, and investments in plants and equipment or in research and development.

5. What Aspects of the Total Situation May Be Relevant? Should you consider the economy? The time of year? Morale in the organization? Any special circumstances? The organization may be prosperous or going through hard times; it may have just been reorganized or may be stable. All these different situations will affect what you say and how you say it. Think about the news, the economy, the weather. Think about the general business and regulatory climate, especially as it affects the organization specified in the problem. Use the real world as much as possible. Think about interest rates, business conditions, and the economy. Is the industry doing well? Is the government agency enjoying general support? Think about the time of year. If it’s fall when you write, is your business in a seasonal slowdown after a busy summer? Gearing up for the Christmas shopping rush? Or going along at a steady pace unaffected by seasons? To answer these questions, draw on your experience, your courses, and your common sense. Read the Wall Street Journal or look at a company’s website. Sometimes you may even want to phone a local businessperson to get information.

Organize Your Information to Fit Your Audiences, Your Purposes, and the Situation. You’ll learn different psychological patterns of organization in Chapters 9 through 11. For now, remember these three basic principles: ■

Put good news first.

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In general, put the main point or question first. In the subject line or first paragraph, make it clear that you’re writing about something that is important to the reader.

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Disregard the above point and approach the subject indirectly when you must persuade a reluctant audience.

Make Your Document Visually Inviting. A well-designed document is easier to read and builds goodwill. To make a document visually attractive ■

Use subject lines to orient the reader quickly.

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Use headings to group related ideas.

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Use lists and indented sections to emphasize subpoints and examples.

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Number points that must be followed in sequence.

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Use short paragraphs—usually eight typed lines or fewer.

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Succeeding in Business Communication

If you plan these design elements before you begin composing, you’ll save time and the final document will probably be better. The best medium for a document depends on how it will be used. For example, a document that will be updated frequently may need to be on a website so the reader can easily obtain the most current information. Chapters 6 and 16 will provide more information on the design of documents and visuals.

Revise Your Draft to Create a Friendly, Businesslike, Positive Style. In addition to being an organizational member or a consumer, your audience has feelings just as you do. Communication that keeps the audience in mind uses you-attitude (see Chapter 3). Read your message as if you were in your audience’s shoes. How would you feel if you received it? Good business and administrative communication is both friendly and businesslike. If you’re too stiff, you put extra distance between your audience and yourself. If you try to be too chummy, you’ll sound unprofessional. When you communicate with strangers, use simple, everyday words and make your message as personal and friendly as possible. When you write to friends, remember that your message may be read by people you’ve never even heard of: avoid slang, clichés, and “in” jokes. Sometimes you must mention limitations, drawbacks, or other negative elements, but don’t dwell on them. People will respond better to you and your organization if you seem confident. Expect success, not failure. If you don’t believe that what you’re writing about is a good idea, why should they? You emphasize the positive when you ■

Put positive information first, give it more space or time, or set it off visually in an indented list.

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Eliminate negative words whenever possible.

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Focus on what is possible, not what is impossible.

Edit Your Draft for Standard English; Double-Check Names and Numbers. Businesspeople care about correctness in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. If your grasp of mechanics is fuzzy, if standard English is not your native dialect, or if English is not your native language, you’ll need to memorize rules and perhaps find a good book or a tutor to help you. Even software spelling and grammar checkers require the writer to make decisions. If you know how to write correctly but rarely take the time to do so, now is the time to begin to edit and proofread to eliminate careless errors. Correctness in usage, punctuation, and grammar is covered in Appendix B. Always proofread your document before you send it out. Double-check the reader’s name, any numbers, and the first and last paragraphs. Chapter 5 will provide more tips on revising and editing communication.

Use the Response You Get to Plan Future Messages. Evaluate the feedback, or response, you get. The real test of any message is “Did you get what you wanted, when you wanted it?” If the answer is no, then the message has failed—even if the grammar is perfect, the words elegant, the

Succeeding against the Odds I developed my communication skills as a technique of survival. I was born in poverty and spent two years on the welfare rolls, and I learned early that I had to communicate or die. And so I talked my way out of poverty—I communicated my way to the top.... I read and re-read books on self-improvement, success, and communication. The most important lesson I learned from these books is what I call “other focusing.” This means, among other things, that if we want to communicate with employees, managers, and even competitors we must ask ourselves not what we want but what they want. This rule made me a millionaire. For the only way I got to where I am today was by persuading thousands of blacks and whites, some of whom were very prejudiced, that the only way they could get what they wanted was by helping me get what I wanted. All the law and prophecy of communication theory can be found in that formula. John H. Johnson, owner and publisher of Ebony magazine, quoted in Gloria Gordon, “EXCEL Award Winner John H. Johnson Communicates Success,” IABC Communication World 6, no. 6 (May 1989): 18–19.

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The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

approach creative, the document stunningly attractive. If the message fails, you need to find out why. Analyze your successes, too. You want to know why your message worked. There has to be a reason, and if you can find what it is, you’ll be more successful more often.

Summary by Learning Objectives LO 1-1

What the benefits of good communication are.

Communication helps organizations and the people in them achieve their goals. People put things in writing to create a record, to convey complex data, to make things convenient for the reader, to save money, and to convey their own messages more effectively. LO 1-2 ■

■

What the costs of communication are.

Common communication costs include writing time, document cycling, printing, mailing, and electronic storage of copies. LO 1-4

What the costs of poor communication are.

Poor writing wastes time, wastes effort, and jeopardizes goodwill. LO 1-5

What the basic criteria for effective messages are.

Good business and administrative writing meets five basic criteria: it's clear, complete, and correct; it saves the reader’s time; and it builds goodwill. LO 1-6

LO 1-7 ■

Why you need to be able to communicate well.

The three basic purposes of business and administrative communication are to inform, to request or persuade, and to build goodwill. Most messages have more than one purpose. The ability to write and speak well becomes increasingly important as you rise in an organization.

LO 1-3

need to know how to adjust conventions to fit a particular audience, context, and purpose.

■

How to solve business communication problems.

To evaluate a specific document, we must know the interactions among the writer, the reader(s), the purposes of the message, and the context. No single set of words will work for all readers in all situations. To understand business communication situations, ask the following questions: ■ What’s at stake—to whom? ■ Should you send a message? ■ What channel should you use? ■ What should you say? ■ How should you say it? The following process helps create effective messages: ■ Gather knowledge and brainstorm solutions. ■ Answer the analysis questions in Figure 1.4. ■ Organize your information to fit your audiences, your purposes, and the context. ■ Make your document visually inviting. ■ Revise your draft to create a friendly, businesslike, positive style. ■ Edit your draft for standard English; doublecheck names and numbers. ■ Use the response you get to plan future messages.

What role conventions play in business communication.

Common business communications have conventions, as do organizations. Business communicators

Continuing Case The All-Weather Case, set in an HR department in a manufacturing company, extends through all 19 chapters and is available at www.mhhe.com/locker11e. The portion for this chapter introduces some of the employees in the department and asks students what they would include in a presentation on the importance of business communication skills.

Chapter 1

Succeeding in Business Communication

Exercises and Cases 1.1

*Go to www.mhhe.com/locker11e for additional Exercises and Cases.

Reviewing the Chapter

1. Why do businesses need to be able to communicate well? (LO 1-1) 2. Why do you need to be able to communicate well? (LO 1-1) 3. What are some flawed assumptions about workplace communication? What is the reality for each myth? (LO 1-2) 4. What are the costs of communication? (LO 1-3) 5. What are the costs of poor communication? (LO 1-4)

1.2

6. What are the basic criteria for effective messages? (LO 1-5) 7. What role do conventions play in business communication? (LO 1-6) 8. What are the components of a good problemsolving method for business communication opportunities? (LO 1-7)

Assessing Your Punctuation and Grammar Skills

To help you see where you need to improve in grammar and punctuation, take the Diagnostic Test, B.1, Appendix B.

1.3

Messages for Discussion I—Asking for a Class

The following are e-mails from various students to Dr. Violet Sands, who is a professor in the English Department. These students are wondering if Dr. Sands would let them register for her already-full class (English 320: 1.

Business Communication). Each e-mail shows a different way a student could make a request of Dr. Sands. How well does each message meet the needs of the reader and the writer? Is the message clear, complete, and correct?

Hi Violet, My name is Jake and I was wondering if you had any extra seats in your English 320 class. See, I'm a senior and I really need to take your class so I can graduate. I don't know what else to do. I didn't take it last year cuz I really didn't want to. I'm desperate. Help me out. Jake

Hello Sands, I'm sorry to bother you, but I really, really need to get into your English 320 class. My advisor totally screwed up my schedule and I didn't know I needed to take this class. It's so weird because I shouldn't have to take this class anyway, but whatever. So, if you could just add me into your class, that would be great. Thanks, Ally

Dr. Sands, Good morning. I hate to e-mail you right before the semester begins, but I have a request. When I tried to register for your Eng 320 course the website stated the course was full. I was wondering if I could possibly be put on a list to add the course just in case someone drops it? I am very interested in this course and would love to take it this semester if at all possible. Thank you so much for your time, Christine

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The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

Dear Dr. Sands, Do u have anymore seats open in your class? I think its 302 or 320 or something like that. Anyways, it would be cool if you would let me into the class. Sorry for e-mailing right at the last minute, but I didn't know what else to do. You are the best, Andrew

1.4

Messages for Discussion II—Responding to Rumors

The Acme Corporation has been planning to acquire Best Products, and Acme employees are worried about how the acquisition will affect them. Ed Zeplin, Acme's human resource manager, has been visiting the Acme chat sites and sees a dramatic rise in the number of messages spreading rumors about layoffs. Most of the rumors are false.

The following messages are possible responses that Ed can post to the chat sites. How well does each message meet the needs of the reader, the writer, and the organization? Is the message clear, complete, and correct? Does it save the reader’s time? Does it build goodwill?

It Will Be Great! Author: L. Ed Zeplin, HR Date: Tuesday, May 23 I am happy to tell you that the HR news is good. Two months ago, the CEO told me about the merger, and I have been preparing a human resource plan ever since. I want you to know about this because morale has been bad, and it shouldn’t be. You really should wait for the official announcements, and you'll see that the staffing needs will remain strong. My department has been under a lot of pressure, but if you'll be patient, we’ll explain everything—the staffing, the compensation. Our plan should be ready by Monday, and then if you have any questions, just contact your HR rep.

HR Staffing Author: HR Boss Date: Tuesday, May 23 The rumors are false. Just ask anyone in HR. There will be no layoffs.

Don't Believe the Rumors Author: [emailprotected] Date: Tuesday, May 23 Acme has 475 employees, and Best Products has 132 employees. Our human resource plan for next year calls for 625 employees. If you do the math, you can see that there will be no layoffs. Rather, we will be hiring 18 employees. Of course, as we consolidate operations with Best, there will be some redeployments. However,

Chapter 1

Succeeding in Business Communication

our plan indicates that we will be able to retain our current staff. All employees are valued at Acme, as our current benefits package testifies. Our HR plan is based on the best analytic techniques and a business forecast by a top consulting firm. If you're an employee, you should review our business plan, at the Our Goals page on Acme's intranet. Everyone should read Acme's mission statement on our home page, www.acme.com/homepage.html.

Layoff Rumors Do Acme a Disservice Author: Zeplin in HR Date: Tuesday, 23 May If you come here to get your company information, you aren’t getting the straight story. The people posting to this discussion board are spreading false rumors, not the truth. If you want to know the truth about Acme, ask the people who have access to the information. As HR manager, I can assure you we won’t be laying off employees after the merger with Best Products. I’m the one who approves the staffing plan, so I should know. If people would ask me, instead of reading the negative, whining lies at this site, they would know the facts, too. If people really cared about job security, they would be working and exceeding their goals, rather than wasting their time in rumor-mongering on message boards. Hard work: that’s the key to success!

The True Story about Lay-Offs Author: [emailprotected] Date: Tuesday, 23 May Whenever there is a merger or acquisition, rumors fly. It’s human nature to turn to rumors when a situation seems uncertain. The case of Acme acquiring Best Products is no exception, so I’m not surprised to see rumors about layoffs posted on this message board. Have no fear! I am working closely with our CEO and with the CEO and human resource manager at Best Products, and we all agree that our current staff is a valuable asset to Acme, to Best, and to our combined companies in the future. We have no plans to lay off any of our valued people. I will continue monitoring this message board and will post messages as I am able to disclose more details about our staffing plans. In the meantime, employees should watch for official information in the company newsletter and on our intranet. We care about our people! If employees ever have questions about our plans and policies, they should contact me directly. L. Ed Zeplin, HR Manager

Part 1

1.5

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

Discussing Communication Barriers

With a small group, discuss some of the communication barriers you have witnessed in the workplace or classroom. What confuses audiences? What upsets them? What creates ill will? What causes loss of interest? Try

1.6

Identifying Poor Communicators

Almost everyone has come in contact with someone who is a poor communicator. With a small group, discuss some of your experiences with poor communicators either in the workplace or in the classroom. Why was the

1.7

communication conventions you have observed at your workplace, or those of your family and friends? With a small group, discuss your examples.

Understanding the Role of Communication in Your Organization

Interview your work supervisor to learn about the kinds and purposes of communication in your organization. Your questions could include the following: ■ What kinds of communication (e.g., e-mails, presentations) are most important in this organization? ■ What communications do you create? Are they designed to inform, to persuade, to build goodwill— or to do a combination? ■ What communications do you receive? Are they designed to inform, to persuade, to build goodwill— or to do a combination? ■ Who are your most important audiences within the organization?

1.9

communicator ineffective? What would have made communication clearer? After your discussion, develop a list of poor communication traits and what can be done to overcome them.

Identifying Changing Conventions

This chapter talks about the need to be aware of conventions and how they shift with time. What are some changing classroom communication conventions you have observed in your classes? What are some changing

1.8

to pinpoint exactly how the communication broke down. How closely do the problems you've identified coincide with the content from Chapter 1?

■ ■ ■

Who are your most important external audiences? What are the challenges of communicating in this organization? What kinds of documents and presentations does the organization prefer?

As your instructor directs, a. Share your results with a small group of students. b. Present your results in an e-mail to your instructor. c. Join with a group of students to make a group presentation to the class. d. Post your results online to the class.

Introducing Yourself to Your Instructor

Write an e-mail (at least 1½ pages long if printed) introducing yourself to your instructor. (See Appendix A for examples of e-mail format.) Include the following topics: Background: Where did you grow up? What have you done in terms of school, extracurricular activities, jobs, and family life? Interests: What are you interested in? What do you like to do? What do you like to think about and talk about? Academics: What courses have you liked the best in school? Why? What life skills have you gained? How do you hope to use them? What do you hope to gain from this course? Achievements: What achievements have given you the greatest personal satisfaction? List at least five.

Include things that gave you a real sense of accomplishment and pride, whether or not they're the sort of thing you'd list on a résumé. Goals: What do you hope to accomplish this term? Where would you like to be professionally and personally five years from now? Use appropriate headings and a conversational writing style; check your draft to polish the style and edit for mechanical and grammatical correctness. A good e-mail will enable your instructor to see you as an individual. Use specific details to make your writing vivid and interesting. Remember that one of your purposes is to interest your reader!

Chapter 1

1.10

Succeeding in Business Communication

Introducing Yourself to Your Collaborative Writing Group will do it, or would you rather “go with the flow”? Do you work best under pressure, or do you want to have assignments ready well before the due date? Areas of expertise: What can you contribute to the group in terms of knowledge and skills? Are you good at brainstorming ideas? Researching? Designing charts? Writing? Editing? Word processing? Managing the flow of work? Maintaining group cohesion? Goals for collaborative assignments: What do you hope to accomplish this term? Where does this course fit into your priorities?

Write an e-mail (at least 1½ pages long if printed) introducing yourself to the other students in your collaborative writing group. (See Appendix A for examples of e-mail format.) Include the following topics: Background: What is your major? What special areas of knowledge do you have? What have you done in terms of school, extracurricular activities, jobs, and family life? Previous experience in groups: What groups have you worked in before? Are you usually a leader, a follower, or a bit of both? Are you interested in a quality product? In maintaining harmony in the group? In working efficiently? What do you like most about working in groups? What do you like least? Work and composing style: Do you like to talk out ideas while they’re in a rough stage or work them out on paper before you discuss them? Would you rather have a complete outline before you start writing or just a general idea? Do you want to have a detailed schedule of everything that has to be done and who

1.11

Use appropriate headings and a conversational writing style; edit your final draft for mechanical and grammatical correctness. A good e-mail will enable others in your group to see you as an individual. Use details to make your writing vivid and interesting. Remember that one of your purposes is to make your readers look forward to working with you!

Describing Your Writing Experiences and Goals

Write an e-mail (at least 1½ pages long if printed) to your instructor describing the experiences you've had writing and what you'd like to learn about writing during this course. (See Appendix A for examples of e-mail format.) Answer several of the following questions:

■

■ ■ ■

What memories do you have of writing? What made writing fun or frightening in the past? What have you been taught about writing? List the topics, rules, and advice you remember. What kinds of writing have you done in school? How long have the papers been? How has your school writing been evaluated? Did the instructor mark or comment on mechanics and grammar? Style? Organization? Logic? Content? Audience analysis and adaptation? Have you gotten extended comments on your papers? Have instructors in different classes had the same standards, or

■

have you changed aspects of your writing for different classes? What voluntary writing have you done—journals, poems, stories, essays? Has this writing been just for you, or has some of it been shared or published? Have you ever written on a job or in a student or volunteer organization? Have you ever edited other people's writing? What have these experiences led you to think about real-world writing? What do you see as your current strengths and weaknesses in writing skills? What skills do you think you’ll need in the future? What kinds of writing do you expect to do after you graduate?

Use appropriate headings and a conversational writing style; edit your final draft for mechanical and grammatical correctness.

Notes 1. United States Postal Service, “Postal Facts 2013,” https:// about.usps.com/who-we-are/postal-facts/welcome. htm#H2. 2. Cathy Davidson, “Dividing Attention Deliberately,” Harvard Business Review 90, no. 1–2 (January–February 2012): 142. 3. Ellen Lee, “How to (Finally!) Manage Your Email [sic],” CNBC, November 22, 2012, http://www.usatoday.com/ story/tech/2012/11/22/manage-email/1704111/.

4. Peter Svensson, “More Thumbs Relax as Texting Declines in US,” Des Moines Register, May 4, 2013, 4A. 5. “Internet 2012 in Numbers,” Royal Pingdom, January 16, 2013, http://royal.pingdom.com/2013/01/16/ internet-2012-in-numbers/. 6. Eric Krell, “The Unintended Word,” HRMagazine 51, no. 8 (2006): 52. 7. Kelly Eggers, “The Best Places to Work in 2012,” FINS Sales & Marketing, December 14, 2011, http://sales-jobs

10. 11.

12. 13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

Part 1

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

.fins.com/Articles/SBB000142405297020402680457709838 0172987416/The-Best-Places-to-Work-in-2012. National Association of Colleges and Employers, “Top 10 Skills for Job Candidates,” April 3, 2013, http://www. naceweb.org/Publications/Spotlight_Online/2013/0403/ Top_10_Skills_for_Job_Candidates.aspx. Alex Crippen, “Warren Buffett's $100,000 Offer and $500,000 Advice for Columbia Business School Students,” CNBC, November 12, 2009, http://www.cnbc. com/id/33891448/Warren_Buffett_s_100_000_Offer_ and_500_000_Advice_for_Columbia_Business_School_ Students. Peter Coy, “The Future of Work,” BusinessWeek, March 22, 2004, 50. The National Commission on Writing for America's Families, Schools, and Colleges, “Writing: A Ticket to Work...or a Ticket Out: A Survey of Business Leaders,” College Board (2004), 7–8. Anne Fisher, “The High Cost of Living and Not Writing Well,” Fortune, December 7, 1998, 244. Jeffrey Gitomer, Jeffrey Gitomer's Little Black Book of Connections: 6.5 Assets for Networking Your Way to Rich Relationships (Austin, TX: Bard Press, 2006), 128–31. Peter D. Hart Research Associate, Inc., How Should Colleges Assess and Improve Student Learning? Employers' Views on the Accountability Challenge: A Survey of Employers Conducted on Behalf of the Association of American Colleges and Universities (Washington, DC: The Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2008), 3. The Conference Board et al., Are They Really Ready to Work? Employers' Perspectives on the Basic Knowledge and Applied Skills of New Entrants to the 21st Century U.S. Workforce, accessed April 10, 2013, http://www.conference-board. org/pdf_free/BED-06-workforce.pdf. Tom DeMint, “So You Want to be Promoted,” Fire Engineering 159, no. 7 (2006); Karen M. Kroll, “Mapping Your Career,” PM Network 19, no. 11 (2005): 28; and Jeff Snyder, “Recruiter: What It Takes,” Security 43, no. 11 (2006): 70. Emily Brandon, “Social Security Statements Now Available Online,” USNews Money, May 1, 2012, http://money.usnews.com/money/blogs/planningto-retire/2012/05/01/social-security-statements-nowavailable-online.

18. Xerox, The Optimum Office: How to Achieve Immediate and Guaranteed Cost Savings via a Managed Print Service, April 2009, http://www.xerox.com/downloads/gbr/en/x/ XGS_Optimum_Office_en.pdf. 19. Pui-Wing Tam, “Cutting Files Down to Size: New Approaches Tackle Surplus of Data,” Wall Street Journal, May 8, 2007, B4. 20. Peter Sanders, “Boeing Has New Delay for Dreamliner,” Wall Street Journal, August 28, 2010, B6. 21. The National Commission on Writing for America's Families, Schools, and Colleges, “Writing: A Ticket to Work ... or a Ticket Out: A Survey of Business Leaders,” 29. 22. Charles Riley and Emily Jane Fox, “GlaxoSmithKline in $3 Billion Fraud Settlement,” CNNMoney.com, July 2, 2012, http://money.cnn.com/2012/07/02/news/companies/ GlaxoSmithKline-settlement/index.htm. 23. Selina Williams, “For BP, the Cleanup Isn't Entirely Over,” Wall Street Journal, February 4, 2013, B2. 24. Olivia Smith, “Papa John's Faces $250 Million Spam Lawsuit,” CNNMoney, November 13, 2012, http://money.cnn. com/2012/11/13/technology/mobile/papa-johns/index. html?iid=obinsite. 25. Matthias Rieker, Andrew R. Johnson, and Alan Zibel, “Capital One Dealt Fine for Pitch to Customers,” Wall Street Journal, July 19, 2012, C1. 26. Stephen Baker, “A Painful Lesson: E-mail Is Forever,” BusinessWeek, March 21, 2005, 36; Gary McWilliams, “WalMart Details Roehm Firing,” Wall Street Journal, March 21, 2007, B11; Peter Waldman and Don Clark, “California Charges Dunn, 4 Others in H-P Scandal; Action Sends Strong Message to Business about Privacy; Precedents for the Web Age?” Wall Street Journal, October 5, 2006, A1; and “Will ‘Love Factor’ Help Make S. C.’s Sanford More Forgivable?” Des Moines Register, June 29, 2009, 12A. 27. Elizabeth A. McCord, “The Business Writer, the Law, and Routine Business Communication: A Legal and Rhetorical Analysis,” Journal of Business and Technical Communication 5, no. 3 (1991): 173–99. 28. Sarah Perez, “Nielsen: TV Still King in Media Consumption; Only 16 Percent of TV Homes Have Tablets,” Techcrunch, January 7, 2013, http://techcrunch. com/2013/01/07/nielsen-tv-still-king-in-mediaconsumption-only-16-percent-of-tv-homes-have-tablets/.

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Adapting Your Message to Your Audience

Chapter Outline Identifying Your Audiences Analyzing Your Audience ■

Analyzing Individuals Analyzing Members of Groups ■ Analyzing the Organizational Culture and the Discourse Community ■

Choosing Channels to Reach Your Audience

Characteristics of Good Audience Benefits Adapt Benefits to the Audience. Stress Intrinsic as well as Extrinsic Motivators. 3. Prove Benefits with Clear Logic and Explain Them in Adequate Detail. 4. Phrase Benefits in You-Attitude. 1. 2.

Identifying and Developing Audience Benefits Identify the Need, Wants, and Feelings that May Motivate Your Audience. 2. Identify the Objective Features of Your Product or Policy that Could Meet the Needs You’ve Identified. 3. Show How the Audience Can Meet Their Needs with the Features of the Policy or Product. 1.

Using Audience Analysis to Adapt Your Message 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

How Will the Audience Initially React to the Message? How Much Information Does the Audience Need? What Obstacles Must You Overcome? What Positive Aspects Can You Emphasize? What Are the Audience’s Expectations about the Appropriate Language, Content, and Organization of Messages? How Will the Audience Use the Document?

Audience Analysis Works

Audience Benefits Work Writing or Speaking to Multiple Audiences with Different Needs Summary by Learning Objectives

NEWSWORTHY COMMUNICATION Making It Manly

arketing products to make men look younger and fitter can be tricky. Although American men feel increasing pressure to pay attention to their appearances, they don’t want to admit they are dieting or using cosmetics. And men certainly don’t want to use any product made for women. That’s why some brands, including Dove, Weight Watchers, Spanx, and Dr Pepper, target some products specifically to men through carefully crafted advertising.

■

In 2010, Dove launched a line of shower gels for men with

advertisements that used the musical theme from “The Lone Ranger.” The announcer’s voice made it clear that the gels were designed for tough men to care for their skin. ■

Weight Watchers, which has always used female celebrities to sell its program, attracted men with new commercials featuring ordinary guys doing manly things—and losing weight. ■

Spanx changed its packaging and wording to emphasize that its girdle product could make men “feel powerful and strong.”

Although some groups have complained about sexism in these ads, the goal of the marketing is to reach a new audience by understanding its motivations and desires. And it seems to be working. Each of the companies reports a marked increase in male customers because of advertising that appeals to them. As James Harris, one new Dove customer, said, “If it’s for men, I’ll use it. If it’s for women, I won’t.”

■ Dr Pepper went even further by playfully marketing its new 10-calorie diet soda as “not for women.”

Source: “Marlboro Man Meets Moisturizer,” Des Moines Register, October 30, 2011, 2D.

Learning Objectives

Audiences for a General Colin Powell, four-star general and former secretary of state, identified five audiences for his press conferences: ■

Reporters.

■

Americans listening and watching.

■

Political and military leaders, plus their fellow citizens, in other countries.

■

The enemy.

■

American troops.

He advised speakers to talk “through” the reporter, although respectfully, to the audiences that mattered most. Adapted from Colin Powell with Tony Koltz, It Worked for Me: In Life and Leadership (New York: Harper, 2012), 130–31.

After studying this chapter, you will know LO 2-1

How to identify your audience.

LO 2-2

Ways to analyze different kinds of audiences.

LO 2-3

How to choose channels to reach your audience.

LO 2-4

How to adapt your message to your audience.

LO 2-5

How to characterize good audience benefits.

LO 2-6

How to create audience benefits.

LO 2-7

How to communicate with multiple audiences.

nowing who you’re talking to is fundamental to the success of any message. You need to identify your audiences, understand their motivations, and know how to reach them.

Identifying Your Audiences

LO 2-1

The first step in analyzing your audience is to decide who your audience is. Organizational messages have multiple audiences: 1. A gatekeeper has the power to stop your message instead of sending it on to other audiences. The gatekeeper therefore controls whether your message even gets to the primary audience. Sometimes the supervisor who assigns the message is the gatekeeper; sometimes the gatekeeper is higher in the organization. In some cases, gatekeepers may exist outside the organization. 2. The primary audience decides whether to accept your recommendations or acts on the basis of your message. You must reach the primary audience to fulfill your purposes in any message. 3. The secondary audience may be asked to comment on your message or to implement your ideas after they’ve been approved. Secondary audiences also include lawyers who may use your message—perhaps years later—as evidence of your organization’s culture and practices. 4. An auxiliary audience may encounter your message but will not have to interact with it. This audience includes the “read-only” people. 5. A watchdog audience, though it does not have the power to stop the message and will not act directly on it, has political, social, or economic power. The watchdog pays close attention to the transaction between you and the primary audience and may base future actions on its evaluation of your message. As the following examples show, one person can be part of two audiences. Frequently, a supervisor is both the primary audience and the gatekeeper. Dawn is an assistant account executive in an ad agency. Her boss asks her to write a proposal for a marketing plan for a new product the agency’s client is introducing. Her primary audience is the executive committee of the client company, who will decide whether to adopt the plan. The secondary audience includes the marketing staff of the client company, who will be asked for comments on the plan, as well as the artists, writers, and media buyers who will carry out details of the plan if it is

Chapter 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience

adopted. Her boss, who must approve the plan before it is submitted to the client, is the gatekeeper. Her office colleagues who read her plan are her auxiliary audience. Joe works in the information technology department of a large financial institution. He must write an e-mail explaining a major software change. His boss is the gatekeeper; the software users in various departments are the primary audience. The secondary audience includes the tech people who will be helping the primary audience install and adjust to the new software. The auxiliary audience includes department program assistants who forward the e-mail to appropriate people in each department. A watchdog audience is the board of directors.

Analyzing Your Audience

LO 2-2

The most important tools in audience analysis are common sense and empathy. Empathy is the ability to put yourself in someone else’s shoes, to feel with that person. Use what you know about people and about organizations to predict likely responses.

Analyzing Individuals When you write or speak to people in your own organization and in other organizations you work closely with, you may be able to analyze your audience as individuals. You may already know them, or can probably get additional information easily. You may learn that one manager may dislike phone calls, so you will know to write your request in an e-mail. Another manager may have a reputation for denying requests made on a Friday, so you will know to get yours in earlier. A useful schema for analyzing people is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.® This instrument uses four pairs of dichotomies to identify ways that people differ.1 The Extraversion (the Myers-Briggs term) Introversion dichotomy measures how individuals prefer to focus their attention and get energy. Extraverted types are energized by interacting with other people. Introverted types get their energy from within. The other three dichotomies in Myers-Briggs® typology are SensingIntuition, Thinking-Feeling, and Judging-Perceiving. The Sensing-Intuition dichotomy measures the way an individual prefers to take in information. Sensing types gather information through their senses, preferring what is real and tangible. Intuitive types prefer to gather information by looking at the big picture, focusing on the relationships and connections between facts. The Thinking-Feeling dichotomy measures the way an individual makes decisions. Thinking types prefer to use thinking in decision making to consider the logical consequences of a choice or action. Feeling types make decisions based on the impact to people, considering what is important to them and to others involved. The Judging-Perceiving dichotomy measures how individuals orient themselves to the external world. Judging types like to live in a planned, orderly way, seeking closure. Perceiving types prefer to live in a flexible, spontaneous way, enjoying possibilities. The descriptors on each of the scales’ dichotomies represent a preference, just as we have a preference for using either our right or our left hand to write. If necessary, we can use the opposite style, but we have less practice in it and use it less easily. You can find your own personality type by taking the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® instrument at your college’s counseling center or student services office. Some businesses administer the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® instrument to all employees to assist with team building and/or personal growth and development.

Reading Levels One of the most relevant demographic measures for writers is the audience’s literacy level. Unfortunately, even in advanced economies you have to ask how well your audience can read and put information to use. In the United States, the answer may be “not very well.” The National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL), conducted by the U.S. Department of Education, found that 14% of adults had difficulty reading well enough to follow simple instructions (such as when to take medication), 12% struggled to use simple forms (deciding where to sign their name on a form), and 22% had trouble working with numbers (simple addition tasks). NAAL also found that 5% of adults were nonliterate—their language skills weren’t strong enough to participate in the assessment. Overall, that translates into 30 million adults in the United States with “below basic” reading and comprehension levels, and another 63 million with only “basic” literacy levels. For business writers, this poses a challenge. When composing a message for a broad audience of employees or customers, you may have to use short sentences, simple words, and clarifying graphics. What other techniques might you use to ensure that audiences with lower literacy levels can understand and use your message? Adapted from Mark Kutner, Elizabeth Greenberg, and Justin Baer, “National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL): A First Look at the Literacy of America’s Adults in the 21st Century,” American Institutes for Research, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, 2006, http:// nces.ed.gov/NAAL/PDF/2006470 .PDF; and Alan M. Lesgold and Melissa Welch-Ross, Eds. Improving Adult Literacy Instruction: Options for Practice and Research (Washington, DC: National Research Council, 2012).

Part 1

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

As Figure2.1 suggests, you’ll be most persuasive if you play to your audience’s strengths. Indeed, many of the general principles of business communication appeal to the types most common among managers. Putting the main point up front satisfies the needs of judging types, and some 75% of U.S. managers are judging. Giving logical reasons satisfies the needs of the nearly 80% of U.S. managers who are thinking types.2

Analyzing Members of Groups In many organizational situations, you’ll analyze your audience not as individuals but as members of a group: “taxpayers who must be notified that they owe more income tax,” “customers who use our accounting services,” or “employees with small children.” Focus on what group members have in common. Although generalizations won’t be true for all members of the group, generalization is necessary when you must appeal to a large group of people with one message. In some cases, no research is necessary: it’s easy to guess the attitudes of people who must be told they owe more taxes. In other cases, databases may yield useful information. In still other cases, you may want to do original research.

Demographic Characteristics Databases enable you to map demographic and psychographic profiles of customers or employees. Demographic

Figure 2.1

Using Personalities in Communication

If your audience is

Use this strategy

Because

Extraverting

Try out ideas orally.

Extraverts like to develop ideas by talking; they are energized by people.

Introverting

Communicate in writing so the audience can think about your message before responding.

Introverts like to think before they communicate. Written messages give them their thinking time.

Sensing

Present all of the needed facts, and get them right. Present your reasoning step-by-step. Stress practicalities.

Sensing people are good at facts and expect others to be, also. They trust their own experience more than someone else’s account.

Intuiting

Focus on the big picture and underlying patterns first. Save details for later. Use metaphors and analogies in explanations. Stress innovation.

Intuitive people like new possibilities and innovation; they enjoy problem solving and creative endeavors. They can be impatient with details, routine, and repetition.

Thinking

Use logic and principles of consistency and fairness rather than emotion or personal circumstances.

Thinking people make decisions based on logic and abstract principles. They are often uncomfortable with emotion or personal revelations.

Feeling

Stress positives. Show how your ideas value the people needs of the organization. Use tactful language.

Feeling people care about other people and their feelings. They are empathetic and desire harmony.

Judging

Make your communications very organized. Provide all needed information. Follow company procedures. Schedule work in advance; provide time frames for various tasks.

Judging people are eager to make decisions, so they may not seek out additional information. They prefer a structured, orderly work life.

Perceiving

Provide alternatives. Ask for action or a decision by a specific date.

Perceiving people like to gather lots of information before making decisions, and they like to keep all options open as long as possible.

Source: Gordon Lawrence, People Types and Tiger Stripes: Using Psychological Type to Help Students Discover Their Unique Potential, 4th ed. (Gainesville, FL: CAPT, Inc., 2009). Used with permission.

Chapter 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience

One Huge Audience

Group membership sometimes gives clues about your audience.

characteristics are measurable features that can be counted objectively: age, sex, race, religion, education level, income, and so on. Sometimes demographic information is irrelevant; sometimes it’s important. Does education matter? The fact that the reader has a degree from Eastern State rather than from Harvard may not matter, but how much the reader knows about accounting may. Does family structure matter? Sometimes. Some hotels and resorts offer family packages that include babysitting, multiple bedrooms, and children’s activities. Age certainly matters. One aspect of age that gets much press is the differences between generations in the office. Many older people believe younger workers have a sense of entitlement, that they expect great opportunities and perks without working for them. On the other hand, many younger workers see their older colleagues as rigid and hostile. Figure2.2 shows some of the frequently mentioned differences between baby boomers and millennials. While awareness of generational differences may help in some communication situations, such lists are also a good place to attach mental warnings against stereotypes. Plenty of baby boomers also like frequent positive feedback, and almost everyone likes a chance to make a difference. For most companies, income is a major demographic characteristic. In 2011, Walmart quietly returned to its “everyday low prices” after experimenting with low-priced sale products balanced by slightly higher prices elsewhere. The new pricing had not appealed to Walmart’s financially strapped customers. The chain also returned guns and fishing equipment to the shelves of many of its stores in an attempt to attract more male customers.3 Location is yet another major demographic characteristic. You can probably think of many differences between regional audiences, or urban/rural audiences, in the United States. See Chapter 7 for more information on crosscultural audiences.

Psychographic Characteristics Psychographic characteristics are qualitative rather than quantitative: values, beliefs, goals, and lifestyles. Knowing what your audience finds important allows you to choose information and benefits that the audience will find persuasive.

Baby boomers number 76 million and account for about half of total U.S. consumer spending. They are expected to spend an additional $50 billion over the next decade. So businesses are subtly beginning to accommodate the needs of this major audience. Subtle is a key word: boomers do not like to be reminded that they are aging. For instance, many boomers dislike having people talk slowly to them, so ADT Security Services trains new operators to talk quickly and get to the point. CVS stores have installed carpeting to reduce slipping. Arm & Hammer sharpened the color contrast on its cat litter packaging and increased font size 20%. Euphemisms abound. ADT’s medical-alert systems are now “companion services”; bathroom-fixture manufacturer Kohler has “belay” bars instead of grab bars for showers; and Kimberly-Clark’s Depends are sometimes labeled as underwear. Small packages of Depends look like underwear and hang on hooks rather than being stacked on shelves like diapers. Adapted from Ellen Byron, “How to Market to an Aging Boomer: Flattery, Suberfuge, and Euphemism,” Wall Street Journal, February 5, 2011, A1.

Part 1

A Multilayered Audience How do you convince 48 million uninsured Americans to sign up for insurance? The U.S. government is facing this problem in the rollout of the Affordable Care Act. Audience analysis of this large group has found six subgroups, three of which will have a major impact on the success or failure of the program. Of the three groups, ■

■

The largest (48%) consists of young, healthy people. This group is critical for the success of the insurance program, but because they take their good health for granted, they will probably procrastinate in signing up. The smallest (15%) consists of “passive and unengaged” people. They are mostly 49 and older and don’t understand or care about health insurance. The middle one (29%) consists of people who are currently sick or worried about health care. They are most Generation Xers and baby boomers, and they actively seek health care information and worry about costs.

The government needs to sign up large numbers from the first two groups to offset costs from the third group. Adapted from Ricardo AlonsoZaldivar, “Marketing Data Help White House Target Its Health Law Pitch,” Des Moines Register, April 1, 2013, 1A.

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

Figure 2.2

Some Generational Differences in the Office

Baby Boomers

Generation X and Millennials

Birth dates

1946–1964

1965 and on

Work ethic

Long hours in office Respect corporate confidentiality Long-term commitment to company

Flexible hours in office Apt to blog or tweet corporate negatives Expectation of multiple employers

Values

Hard work Consistency Privacy Hierarchy Clearly defined roles Confident in proven abilities Serious about work

Work–life balance Flexibility Sharing Social equality, autonomy Variety of challenges Overconfidence in abilities Want work to be fun

Preferred channels

Face-to-face, e-mail

Texting, social networks

Motivators

Duty to company

What’s in it for them; want important tasks

Communication style

Through channels and hierarchy; accept annual evaluation

Freely offer opinions, both laterally and upward; want great amounts of attention and praise; want faster feedback

Decorum

Follow basic business decorum

May need to be reminded about basic business decorum

Sources: “Millennials, Gen X and Baby Boomers: Who's Working at Your Company and What Do They Think about Ethics?” Ethics Resource Center, 2010, http://ethics.org/files/u5/Gen-Diff.pdf; and Jen Wieczner, “10 Things Millennials Won't Tell You,” Market Watch, June 24, 2013, http://finance.yahoo.com/news/10-things-millennials-won-t-113327583.html?page=all.

Marketing companies are combining consumers’ web surfing records with personal off-line data from sources such as the Census Bureau, consumer research firms such as Nielsen, credit card and shopping histories, and real estate and motor vehicle records. The combined data allow marketers to reach narrowly defined audiences.

Analyzing the Organizational Culture and the Discourse Community Be sensitive to the culture in which your audiences work and the discourse community of which they are a part. Organizational culture is a set of values, attitudes, and philosophies. An organization’s culture is revealed verbally in the organization’s myths, stories, and heroes, as well as in documents such as employee manuals. It is revealed nonverbally through means such as dress codes, behavior standards, or the allocation of space, money, and power. A discourse community is a group of people who share assumptions about what channels, formats, and styles to use for communication, what topics to discuss and how to discuss them, and what constitutes evidence. In an organization that values equality and individualism, you can write directly to the CEO and address him or her as a colleague. In other companies, you’d be expected to follow a chain of command. Some organizations prize short messages; some expect long, thorough documents. Messages that are consistent with the organization’s culture have a greater chance of succeeding.

Chapter 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience

Write Your Way into Your New Job

Some companies are beginning to accept visible body art and long hair in traditional workplace cultures.

You can begin to analyze an organization’s culture by asking the following questions: ■

Is the organization tall or flat? Are there lots of levels between the CEO and the lowest worker, or only a few?

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How do people get ahead? Are the organization’s rewards based on seniority, education, being well-liked, saving money, or serving customers? Are rewards available only to a few top people, or is everyone expected to succeed?

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Does the organization value diversity or homogeneity? Does it value independence and creativity or being a team player and following orders?

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What stories do people tell? Who are the organization’s heroes and villains?

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How important are friendship and sociability? To what extent do workers agree on goals, and how intently do they pursue them?

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How formal are behavior, language, and dress?

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What does the work space look like? Do employees work in offices, cubicles, or large rooms?

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What are the organization’s goals? Making money? Serving customers and clients? Advancing knowledge? Contributing to the community?

To analyze an organization’s discourse community, ask the following questions: ■

What media, formats, and styles are preferred for communication?

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What do people talk about? What topics are not discussed?

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What kind of and how much evidence is needed to be convincing?

You can learn a bit about your organization’s discourse community by listening to people and reading the documents that other people write. But the best way to learn is to write. The feedback you get from your supervisor will show you how to adapt your writing for the particular organization. To make the feedback most useful, categorize the comments and generalize. Are you being asked to provide specific supporting details? To write so that people can understand what you say without having to reread? To use a more or less formal style? To include lots of charts or none at all? Learning to adapt your content, structure, and style to the organization will make you a more effective writer and a more effective worker. And that means that more often you’ll be able to get what you want in the organization.

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

Part 1

A Channel Pro

Choosing Channels to Reach Your Audience

Virgin Atlantic Airways (VAA) uses multiple channels to support its branding as a fun, innovative, honest, caring, and valueoffering airline. ■

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The most-read portion of its Facebook page contains travel tips from crew members, communication that comes across as honest and caring. Its website contains a “rapid response” link to Twitter and Facebook for up-to-date communications duringcrises.

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Its Vtravelled site allows customers to exchange travel information andadvice.

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Its Facebook Flight Status app was a first for any airline, as was its iPhone app, Flight Tracker, which includes real-time aircraft positions.

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In response to suggestions from its online community, it launched an airport taxisharing service.

VAA’s head of e-business says, “Twitter is no more than a sound bite. Facebook can be an article. The website is for in-depth detail. They all need to signpost each other.” Adapted from Patrick Barwise and Sean Meehan, “The One Thing You Must Get Right When Building a Brand,” Harvard Business Review 88, no. 12 (December 2010): 83–84.

LO 2-3

A communication channel is the means by which you convey your message. Communication channels vary in speed, accuracy of transmission, cost, number of messages carried, number of people reached, efficiency, and ability to promote goodwill. Electronic channel usage is growing phenomenally. In 2012, there were ■

2.4 billion Internet users, globally.

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634 million websites.

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1.2 trillion searches on Google.

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144 billion e-mails per day, globally.

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89 billion e-mails sent and received daily by businesses.4

Evolving channels can have enormous impacts on businesses. Websites such as Amazon have helped put bookstores and electronics stores out of business. Whole chains such as Best Buy and RadioShack are fighting for existence.5 Depending on the audience, your purposes, and the situation, one channel may be better than another. Marketers frequently use both the Internet and television because they believe the two channels do different things. The Internet excels at selling when customers know what they want, such as a book or airline ticket; television is good at getting people to want to buy something and then remembering to do so.6 Procter & Gamble has a website, BeingGirl .com, where girls can share experiences and questions about feminine hygiene products. P&G says this channel is four times more effective, dollar for dollar, than television commercials.7 A written message makes it easier to ■

Present extensive or complex data.

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Present many specific details.

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Minimize undesirable emotions.

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Track details and agreements.

Oral messages make it easier to ■

Use emotion to help persuade the audience.

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Focus the audience’s attention on specific points.

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Resolve conflicts and build consensus.

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Modify plans.

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Get immediate action or response.

Choosing the right channel can be tricky sometimes. As Hurricane Katrina approached the Gulf Coast, the National Hurricane Center found its electronic communications about the looming wallop were not enough; officials at the center then phoned Gulf Coast mayors and governors to hasten disaster preparations.8

Chapter 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience

Even in the office, you will have to decide if your message will be more effective as an e-mail, text message, phone call, visit, or sticky note posted on a colleague’s computer. In nonstandard situations, choosing a channel can be challenging. ■

If you are the head of a small, nonprofit literacy agency that helps adults learn to read, how do you reach your clients? You cannot afford TV ads, and they cannot read print channels such as flyers.

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If you are a safety officer for a manufacturer, how do you send out product recall notifications? How many people file the contact-information cards when they purchase an item?

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If you are the benefits manager in a large manufacturing plant, how will you get information about your new benefits plan out to the thousand people on the floor? They don’t use computers at work and may not have computer access at home.

Businesses are becoming savvier about using the array of channels. Ad money has been moving out of print and TV channels and into online advertising, which topped $39.5 billion in 2012.9 Businesses use Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and Flickr to highlight new products and services. Many companies have interactive websites and forums where customers can get product information and chat about products; Amazon is a prime example. Manufacturers give perks to bloggers to talk about their products. Police departments are posting pictures of wanted people on Pinterest. Nonprofits advertise events, connect with volunteers, and schedule volunteer service on their Facebook pages. And all that social network communi- M&M candies offer a sweet communication cation can now be mined by software channel to organizations. that performs semantic analyses, providing feedback to advertisers about both products and audiences. Even traditional paper channels are moving online. Publishers are making their travel books into e-books and cell phone apps. Magazines and newspapers are expanding from paper copies to include electronic copies as well as blogs, podcasts, and chat rooms as more people receive their news on mobile platforms and social networking sites. In fact, Warren Buffett warned the Washington Post, on whose board he served, that the paper-only model would no longer work.10 According to the Pew Research Center for the People & the Press, in the past 20 years, the percentage of Americans who regularly ■

Watch local TV news has dropped from about 80% to 48%.

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Watch evening network news has dropped from 60% to 27%.

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Regularly read a daily newspaper has dropped from almost 60% to 38%.11

A Wicked Wiki Problem What should you do if someone has written something harmful on your company’s Wikipedia page? Do not ignore it, because often customers, journalists, and even new hires frequently go to Wikipedia to glean basic information about a company or product. Yet 60% of Wikipedia’s pages contain factual errors. Ryan Holiday, author of Trust Me, I’m Lying: Confessions of a Media Manipulator, gives these suggestions: ■

“Be notable enough for a page.” Seek coverage from reliable, independent sources.

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“Do not blindly edit your page.” Learn the practices of the Wikipedia editorial community. Try posting your thoughts (and reliable, independent sources to back them) on the discussion section of the page instead of rushing in and trying to edit the page yourself.

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“Fight fire with fire.” The author advises companies to carefully control their own page, but edit only the parts that are not factual.

Adapted from Ryan Holiday, “How to Solve Your Wikipedia Problem. (Yes, You Have One.),” CNN Money, August14, 2012, http://management .fortune.cnn.com/2012/08/14/ wikipedia-reputationmanage-/?iid5SF_SB_LN.

Txtng 2 Customers Stores that sell teen clothing are starting to text their customers with great success. New marketing research shows that people are five times more likely to open texts than e-mails, and they generally respond within one to three minutes. The quick response rate enables stores to run targeted specials. One coupon deal that was only available for three hours exclaimed, “All corsets $15! Yes, please!” The drawback is that customers have to opt in to receive texts, unlike e-mail. However, chains are learning how to lure customers. Charlotte Russe sent a text with a romantic sales video (handsome young man, melting smile) that increased their database 33% in one weekend. Other stores and brands that are successfully reaching out to teens by text are Claire’s Boutique and Vans. Adapted from Christina Binkley, “Teen Stores Try Texts as Gr8 Nu Way to Reach Out,” Wall Street Journal, August 2, 2012, D1.

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Prime-time television viewing in general is declining, as people turn to DVRs, streaming, and video on demand; prime-time ads are also losHeartlanders American Classics Surburban Pioneers ing some of their appeal for companies.12 Preferred channels reflect age categories. Americans 50 and older prefer traditional channels—television, radio, Multi-Culti Mosaic Young Digerati Young Influentials and print newspapers. Americans under 30 prefer digital sources. Comedy news shows such as The Daily Show with Jon Stewart and The Colbert Report Greenbelt Sports Blue-Chip Blues Close-In Couples attract younger audiences; cable talk shows, such as The Market research firm Claritas, Inc., combines demoO’Reilly Factor and Hannity, graphic and psychographic data to identify 66 lifestyle attract viewers 65 and older.13 segments, including “Young Digerati” (tech-savvy Some channels also reflect young adults), “Close-In Couples” (older, Africangender difference. AudiAmerican couples), and “Blue-Chip Blues” (young ences for business publication families with well-paying blue-collar jobs). PRIZM is such as the Wall Street Joura trademark or registered trademark of The Nielsen Company (US), LLC. nal, Economist, and Bloomberg Businessweek are over 70% male, while audiences for daytime talk shows such as Ellen DeGeneres’s show and The View are over 70% female.14 Creative uses of channels are appearing everywhere (for more on electronic channels, see Chapter 9):

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Ads are appearing on subway tunnels, fire hydrants, grocery checkout conveyors, sidewalks, toilet stall doors, and cardboard shirt hangers used by cleaners. 15

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Toy maker Mattel used Facebook, Twitter, and a series of eight webisodes to celebrate the 50th birthday of Ken, Barbie’s boyfriend. The webisodes allowed Mattel to extend the audience to teenagers and adults who have an emotional tie with the toy and may be collectors.16

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CBS used 35 million eggs printed with show logos and related puns; they called the endeavor “egg-vertising.” 17

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The USA Network used 50,000 $1 bills bearing stickers for one of its miniseries.18

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Scientists are using computer games to enlist the help of nonscientists. EyeWire enlists players to map neural connections in the eye; Foldit enlists players to help solve the question of how proteins fold.19

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Vienna, Austria, raised money for the main public library with a phone sex hotline. Pay by the minute and you got to hear a famous Austrian actress reading passages from the library’s collection of erotic fiction from the eighteenth through the twentieth centuries.20

Chapter 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience

Using Audience Analysis to Adapt Your Message LO 2-4 Zeroing in on the right audience with the right message is frequently a formula for success. If you know your audience well and if you use words well, much of your audience analysis and adaptation will be unconscious. If you don’t knowyour audience or if the message is very important, take the time to analyze your audience formally and to revise your message with your analysis in mind. Remember that audiences change, sometimes drastically, over time. Just think how much college students have changed since your parents’ generation went to college. The questions in Figure2.3 will help guide a careful audience analysis. As you answer these questions for a specific audience, think about the organizational culture in which the person works. At every point, your audience’s reaction is affected not only by his or her personal feelings and preferences but also by the political environment of the organization, the economy, and current events.

1. How Will the Audience Initially React to the Message? a. Will the audience see this message as important? Audiences will read and act on messages they see as important to their own careers; they may ignore messages that seem unimportant to them. When the audience may see your message as unimportant, you need to ■

Use a subject line or first paragraph that shows your reader this message is important and relevant.

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Make the action as easy as possible.

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Suggest a realistic deadline for action.

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Keep the message as short as possible.

b. How will the fact that the message is from you affect the audience’s reaction? The audience’s experience with you and your organization shapes the response to this new message. Someone who thinks well of you and your organization will be prepared to receive your message favorably; someone who thinks poorly of you and the organization will be quick to find fault with what you say and the way you say it.

Figure 2.3

Analyzing Your Audience

These questions will help you analyze your audience: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

How will the audience initially react to the message? How much information does the audience need? What obstacles must you overcome? What positive aspects can you emphasize? What are the audience’s expectations about the appropriate language, content, and organization of messages? 6. How will the audience use the document?

A Zappos Channel [According to Tony Hsieh, founder and CEO of Zappos, the popular Internet footwear business], “There’s a lot of buzz these days about ‘social media’ and ‘integration marketing.’ As unsexy and low-tech as it may sound, our belief is that the telephone is one of the best branding devices out there. You have the customer’s undivided attention for five to ten minutes, and if you get the interaction right, what we’ve found is that the customer remembers the experience for a very long time and tells his or her friends about it. ... “At Zappos, we don’t measure call times (our longest phone call was almost six hours long!).... We don’t have scripts because we trust our employees to use their best judgment when dealing with each and every customer.... We’re trying to build a lifelong relationship with each customer one phone call at a time.” Quoted from Tony Hsieh, Delivering Happiness: A Path to Profits, Passion, and Purpose (New York: Business Plus, 2010), 143–45. With permission from Central Grand Publishing.

Part 1

When your audience has negative feelings about your organization, your position, or you personally, you need to

Customer Analysis According to Harvey Mackay, author of the business best seller Swim with the Sharks without Being Eaten Alive, the golden rule of sales is “know your customer and competitors.” Your customers are not companies, but rather the individuals at companies who decide whether or not to buy your goods or services. To analyze these buyers, he has developed a 66-question customer profile, the Mackay 66. The profile includes questions about such topics as the individual’s education, spouse, children, politics, religion, activities, hobbies, vacations, cars, personality, personal goals, and business goals. In addition to typical questions you might expect, such as employment record, the profile also asks about ■

Status symbols in office.

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Sensitive items to be avoided.

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Subjects arousing strong feelings.

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Favorite conversation topics.

Mackay uses the information in these profiles to meet the needs of his customers. (He says he also guards it with his life, because he knows how sensitive it is.) Adapted from Harvey Mackay, “Knowing Your Customer Is Key,” Des Moines Register, November 29, 2010, 6E; and Harvey Mackay, “The Mackay 66,” Des Moines Register, May 14, 2012, 6E.

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

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Make a special effort to avoid phrases that could seem condescending, arrogant, rude, hostile, or uncaring.

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Use positive emphasis (see Chapter 3) to counteract the natural tendency to sound defensive.

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Develop logic and benefits fully.

2. How Much Information Does the Audience Need? a. How much does the audience already know about this subject? It’s easy to overestimate the knowledge an audience has. People outside your own immediate unit may not really know what it is you do. Even people who once worked in your unit may have forgotten specific details now that their daily work is in management. People outside your organization won’t know how your organization does things. When some of your information is new to the audience, you need to ■

Make a special effort to be clear. Define terms, explain concepts, use examples, avoid acronyms.

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Link new information to old information that the audience already knows.

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Use paragraphs and headings to break up new information into related chunks so that the information is easier to digest.

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Test a draft of your document with your reader or a subset of your intended audience to see whether the audience can understand and use what you’ve written.

b. Does the audience’s knowledge need to be updated or corrected? Our personal experience guides our expectations and actions, but sometimes needs to be corrected. If you’re trying to change someone’s understanding of something, you need to ■

Acknowledge the audience’s initial understanding early in the message.

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Use examples, statistics, or other evidence to show the need for the change, or to show that the audience’s experience is not universal.

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Allow the audience to save face by suggesting that changed circumstances call for new attitudes or action.

c. What aspects of the subject does the audience need to be aware of to appreciate your points? When the audience must think of background or old information to appreciate your points, you can

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Preface information with “As you know” or “As you may remember” to avoid suggesting that you think the audience does not know what you’re saying.

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Put old or obvious information in a subordinate clause.

Chapter 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience

3. What Obstacles Must You Overcome? a. Is your audience opposed to what you have to say? People who have already made up their minds are highly resistant to change. When the audience will oppose what you have to say, you need to ■

Start your message with any areas of agreement or common ground that you share with your audience.

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Make a special effort to be clear and unambiguous. Points that might be clear to a neutral audience can be misinterpreted by someone opposed to the message.

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Make a special effort to avoid statements that will anger the audience.

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Limit your statement or request to the smallest possible area. If parts of your message could be delivered later, postpone them.

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Show that your solution is the best solution currently available, even though it isn’t perfect.

b. Will it be easy for the audience to do as you ask? Everyone has a set of ideas and habits and a mental self-image. If we’re asked to do something that violates any of those, we first have to be persuaded to change our attitudes or habits or self-image—a change we’re reluctant to make. When your request is time-consuming, complicated, or physically or psychologically difficult, you need to ■

Make the action as easy as possible.

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Break down complex actions into a list, so the audience can check off each step as it is completed. This list will also help ensure complete responses.

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Show that what you ask is consistent with some aspect of what the audience believes.

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Show how the audience (not just you or your organization) will benefit when the action is completed.

4. What Positive Aspects Can You Emphasize? a. From the audience’s point of view, what are the benefits of your message? Benefits help persuade the audience that your ideas are good ones. Make the most of the good points inherent in the message you want to convey. ■

Put good news first.

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Use audience benefits that go beyond the basic good news.

b. What experiences, interests, goals, and values do you share with the audience? A sense of solidarity with someone can be an even more powerful reason to agree than the content of the message itself. When everyone in your audience shares the same experiences, interests, goals, and values, you can

Business Cards Have Gone High-Tech Does your business card represent you well? The business card is one of the best channels to share necessary contact information—like your name, company, e-mail, website, and social media information. Many innovative companies and individuals are turning to high-tech means to make their business cards stand out from the crowd. Some creative ideas include ■

Cards that resemble hotel key cards.

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Cards that have USB connections or QR codes that can be read by smartphones.

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Cards that are little Lego figures with contact information stamped upon them (for a product manager at Lego).

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Cards that resemble profiles from social media.

Using or creating an unusual business card may be a creative way to get noticed. Adapted from Katherine Rosman, “Business Cards Do High-Tech Work,” Wall Street Journal, October 18, 2012, D1.

Fancy Food Campbell’s classic soups just aren’t selling. In fact, they have gone down in popularity with younger buyers. According to Charles Vila, the vice president for consumer insights, these younger buyers are “more experimental” and “love to sample.” So, Campbell created a new line of soups, called Go! Soup, which features interesting new flavor combinations including “chorizo, pulled chicken with black beans, and golden lentils with madras curry.” The new meals are easy and fast, and they come in brightly colored packages. However, the company is selling these new pouches for $2.99 each, which is a jump in price from the 99 cents that the classic soups sell for. Will that price push away new, young buyers? Adapted from “Campbell Looks Way Beyond the Tomato,” Bloomberg Businessweek, August 13, 2012, 25–26.

Part 1

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

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Consider using a vivid anecdote to remind the audience of what you share. The details of the anecdote should be interesting or new; otherwise, you may seem to be lecturing the audience.

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Use a salutation and close that remind the audience of their membership in this formal or informal group.

5. What Are the Audience’s Expectations about the Appropriate Language, Content, and Organization of Messages? a. What style of writing does the audience prefer? Good writers adapt their style to suit the reader’s preferences. A reader who sees contractions as too informal needs a different style from one who sees traditional business writing as too stuffy. As you write, ■

Use what you know about your reader to choose a more or less formal, more or less friendly style.

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Use the reader’s first name in the salutation only if both of you are comfortable with a first-name basis.

b. Are there hot buttons or “red flag” words that may create an immediate negative response? You don’t have time to convince the audience that a term is broader or more neutral than his or her understanding. When you need agreement or approval, you should ■

Avoid terms that carry emotional charges for many people: for example, criminal, un-American, feminist, fundamentalist, liberal.

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Use your previous experience with individuals to replace any terms that have particular negative meanings for them.

c. How much detail does the audience want? A message that does not give the audience the desired amount or kind of detail may fail. Sometimes you can ask your audience how much detail they want. When you write to people you do not know well, you can ■

Provide all the detail needed to understand and act on your message.

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Group chunks of information under headings so that readers can go directly to the parts of the message they find most interesting and relevant.

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Be sure that a shorter-than-usual document covers the essential points; be sure that a longer-than-usual document is free from wordiness and repetition.

d. Does the audience prefer a direct or indirect organization? Individual personality or cultural background may lead someone to prefer a particular kind of structure. You’ll be more effective if you use the structure and organization your audience prefers.

Chapter 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience

6. How Will the Audience Use the Document? a. Under what physical conditions will the audience use the document? Reading a document in a quiet office calls for no special care. But suppose the audience will be reading your message on the train commuting home or on a ladder as he or she attempts to follow instructions. Then the physical preparation of the document can make it easier or harder to use. When the reader will use your document outside an office, ■

Use lots of white space.

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Make the document small enough to hold in one hand.

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Number items so readers can find their place after an interruption.

b. Will the audience use the document as a general reference? As a specific guide? Understanding how your audience will use the document will enable you to choose the best pattern of organization and the best level of detail. If the document will serve as a general reference, ■

Use a specific subject line to aid in filing and retrieval. If the document is online, consider using several key words to make it easy to find the document in a database search program.

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Use headings within the document so that readers can skim it.

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Give the office as well as the person to contact so that the reader can get in touch with the appropriate person some time from now.

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Spell out details that may be obvious now but might be forgotten in a year.

If the document will be a detailed guide or contain instructions, ■

Check to be sure that all the steps are in chronological order.

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Number steps so that readers can easily see which steps they’ve completed.

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Group steps into five to seven categories if there are many individual steps.

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Put any warnings at the beginning of the document; then repeat them just before the specific step to which they apply.

Audience Analysis Works Audience analysis is a powerful tool. Amazon.com tracks users’ online histories to make suggestions on items they might like. PetFlow carved out a niche in the pet supply business by delivering pet food ordered online. The company’s audience consists mostly of women, who were tired of lugging home heavy bags of pet food.21 Nintendo believes that much of its success is extending its concept of audience. An important part of its audience is hard-core gamers, a very vocal group—they love to blog. But if Nintendo listened just to them, they would be

Audience Is Not a Mystery for Her Every year, mystery writer Mary Higgins Clark sells 3.7 million copies of her books; in fact, she has sold over 100 million copies in the United States alone. Perhaps the biggest factor in her success is her careful audience analysis; she gives her audience what they want. In her case, this means intelligent women in danger who unravel sinister plots and often help engineer their own escapes. Her heroines tend to be self-made professionals. Because her novels are always “G-rated” (no cursing, no living together before marriage, no explicit depictions of violence), they are a favorite of mother–daughter book clubs and sell heavily for Mother’s Day, the third biggest book-selling holiday of the year (Father’s Day and Christmas are bigger). Adapted from Alexandra Alter, “The Case of the Best-Selling Author: How a Former Pan-Am Stewardess Has Stayed at the Top of the Publishing Game Since 1975,” Wall Street Journal, March 25, 2011, D1.

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the only audience Nintendo had. Instead, Nintendo extended its audience by creating the Wii, a new system that the hard-core gamers had not imagined and one that is collecting new users who never imagined owning a system.22 With the introduction of Wii Fit, Nintendo expanded its audience to more women and even senior citizens. Tesco PLC, Britain’s largest retailer, signs up customers for its Clubcard. The card gives customers discounts, and it gives Tesco audience data. When Tesco added Asian herbs and ethnic foods in Indian and Pakistani neighborhoods, the data showed the products were also popular with affluent white customers, so Tesco expanded the rollout. When customers buy diapers the first time, they get coupons for usual baby products such as wipes and toys. They also get coupons for beer, because the data show that new fathers buy more beer.23

Characteristics of Good Audience Benefits LO 2-5 Use your analysis of your audience to create effective audience benefits, advantages that the audience gets by using your services, buying your products, following your policies, or adopting your ideas. In informative messages, benefits give reasons to comply with the information you announce and suggest that the information is good. In persuaThis medical message is targeted to a specific audience: sive messages, benefits give reasons to act and help smokers with diabetes. overcome audience resistance. Negative messages do not use benefits. Good benefits meet four criteria. Each of these criteria suggests a technique for writing good benefits.

1. Adapt Benefits to the Audience. When you write to different audiences, you may need to stress different benefits. Suppose that you manufacture a product and want to persuade dealers to carry it. The features you may cite in ads directed toward customers—stylish colors, sleek lines, convenience, durability, good price—won’t convince dealers. Shelf space is at a premium, and no dealer carries all the models of all the brands available for any given product. Why should the dealer stock your product? To be persuasive, talk about the features that are benefits from the dealer’s point of view: turnover, profit margin, the national advertising campaign that will build customer awareness and interest, the special store displays you offer that will draw attention to the product.

2. Stress Intrinsic as Well as Extrinsic Motivators. Intrinsic motivators come automatically from using a product or doing something. Extrinsic motivators are “added on.” Someone in power decides to give them; they do not necessarily come from using the product or doing the action. Figure2.4 gives examples of extrinsic and intrinsic motivators for three activities.

Chapter 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience

Figure 2.4

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivators

Activity

Extrinsic Motivator

Intrinsic Motivator

Making a sale

Getting a commission

Pleasure in convincing someone; pride in using your talents to think of a strategy and execute it

Turning in a suggestion to a company suggestion system

Getting a monetary reward when the suggestion is implemented

Solving a problem at work; making the work environment a little more pleasant

Writing a report that solves an organizational problem

Getting praise, a good performance appraisal, and maybe a raise

Pleasure in having an effect on an organization; pride in using your skills to solve problems; solving the problem itself

Intrinsic motivators or benefits are better than extrinsic motivators for two reasons: ■

There just aren’t enough extrinsic motivators for everything you want people to do. You can’t give a prize to every customer every time he or she places an order or to every subordinate who does what he or she is supposed to do.

■

Research shows that extrinsic motivators may actually make people less satisfied with the products they buy or the procedures they follow.

In a groundbreaking study of professional employees, Frederick Herzberg found that the things people said they liked about their jobs were all intrinsic motivators—pride in achievement, an enjoyment of the work itself, responsibility. Extrinsic motivators—pay, company policy—were sometimes mentioned as things people disliked, but they were never cited as things that motivated or satisfied them. People who made a lot of money still did not mention salary as a good point about the job or the organization.24

3. Prove Benefits with Clear Logic and Explain Them in Adequate Detail. An audience benefit is a claim or assertion that the audience will benefit if they do something. Convincing the audience, therefore, involves two steps: making sure the benefit really will occur, and explaining it to the audience. If the logic behind a claimed benefit is faulty or inaccurate, there’s no way to make that particular benefit convincing. Revise the benefit to make it logical. Faulty logic:

Moving your account information into Excel will save you time.

Analysis:

If you have not used Excel before, in the short run it will probably take you longer to work with your account information using Excel. You may have been pretty good with your old system!

Revised benefit:

Moving your account information into Excel will allow you to prepare your monthly budget pages with a few clicks of a button.

If the logic is sound, making that logic evident to the audience is a matter of providing enough evidence and showing how the evidence proves the

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claim that there will be a benefit. Always provide enough detail to be vivid and concrete. You’ll need more detail in the following situations: ■

The audience may not have thought of the benefit before.

■

The benefit depends on the difference between the long run and the short run.

■

The audience will be hard to persuade, and you need detail to make the benefit vivid and emotionally convincing.

The apparel industry, which is actively seeking a middle-aged and baby boomer audience, is using details to attract them. Slacks may offer slimming panels, and jeans may offer stretch waists and room for padded hips and thighs. Tops may cover upper arms. The potential market is huge. Women’s apparel sales are over $100 billion annually, and women over 35 account for over half of those sales.25 Sometimes customers are willing to pay more for a product with desired benefits. Starbucks charges a high price for coffee, but lets you linger for hours at your table. However, customers are not always willing to pay for benefits they like or even need. Bank attempts to charge for using tellers often fail miserably. Customers resent paying to talk to someone about their own money, even when most would be better off economically paying per teller visit rather than paying for everyone’s visits through some other fee or lower interest rates.26

4. Phrase Benefits in You-Attitude. If benefits aren’t worded with you-attitude (see Chapter 3), they’ll sound selfish and won’t be as effective as they could be. It doesn’t matter how you phrase benefits while you’re brainstorming and developing them, but in your final draft, check to be sure that you’ve used you-attitude. Lacks you-attitude:

We have the lowest prices in town.

You-attitude:

At Havlichek Cars, you get the best deal in town.

Identifying and Developing Audience Benefits LO 2-6 Brainstorm lots of benefits—perhaps twice as many as you’ll need. Then you can choose the ones that are most effective for your audience, or that you can develop most easily. The first benefit you think of may not be the best. Sometimes benefits will be easy to think of and to explain. When they are harder to identify or to develop, use the following steps to identify and then develop good benefits.

1. Identify the Needs, Wants, and Feelings that May Motivate Your Audience. All of us have basic needs, and most of us supplement those needs with possessions or intangibles we want. We need enough food to satisfy nutritional needs, but we may want our diet to make us look sexy. We need basic shelter, but we may want our homes to be cozy, luxurious, or green. And our needs and wants are strongly influenced by our feelings. We may feel safer in a more expensive car, even though research does not show that car as being safer than cheaper models.

Chapter 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience

2. Identify the Objective Features of Your Product or Policy that Could Meet the Needs You’ve Identified. Sometimes just listing the audience’s needs makes it obvious which feature meets a given need. Sometimes several features together meet the need. Try to think of all of them. Suppose that you want to persuade people to come to the restaurant you manage. It’s true that everybody needs to eat, but telling people they can satisfy their hunger needs won’t persuade them to come to your restaurant rather than going somewhere else or eating at home. Depending on what features your restaurant offered, you could appeal to one or more of the following subgroups: Subgroup People who work outside the home

Features to meet the subgroup’s needs A quick lunch; a relaxing place to take clients or colleagues

Parents with small children

High chairs, children’s menus, and toys to keep the kids entertained while they wait for their order

People who eat out a lot

Variety both in food and in decor

People on tight budgets

Economical food; a place where they don’t need to tip (cafeteria or fast food)

People on special diets

Low-sodium and low-carb dishes; vegetarian food; kosher food

People to whom eating out is part of an evening’s entertainment

Music or a floor show; elegant surroundings; reservations so they can get to a show or event after dinner; late hours so they can come to dinner after a show or game

Whenever you’re communicating with customers or clients about features that are not unique to your organization, it’s wise to present both benefits of the features themselves and benefits of dealing with your company. If you talk about the benefits of the new healthy choices in children’s menus but don’t mention your own revised menu, people may go somewhere else!

3. Show How the Audience Can Meet Their Needs with the Features of the Policy or Product. Features alone rarely motivate people. Instead, link the feature to the audience’s needs—and provide details to make the benefit vivid. Weak:

You get quick service.

Better: If you only have an hour for lunch, try our Business Buffet. Within minutes, you can choose from a variety of main dishes, vegetables, and a make-your-ownsandwich-and-salad bar. You’ll have a lunch that’s as light or filling as you want, with time to enjoy it—and still be back to the office on time.

Audience Benefits Work Appropriate audience benefits work so well that organizations spend much time and money identifying them and then developing them.

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■

Hotels study which benefits are worth the money, and which are not. Holiday Inn keeps restaurants and bars in all its hotels, even though they are not money makers, but does not have bellhops. Staybridge Suites cleans less often but has “Sundowner receptions,” which give guests a free meal and a chance to socialize.27

■

The reviewing site Yelp offers its best reviewers exclusive social events ranging from museum cocktail parties to Mardi Gras parties. These elite reviewers, who continue to write reviews to maintain their status, produce about 100 more reviews than non-elite reviewers and about 25% of Yelp’s reviews.28

■

American Express maintains Connectodex, a social network for holders of its OPEN credit cards (for small-business owners). More than 15,000 small businesses have joined. Members, who post profiles, list services and needs, and make business connections, say they prefer Connectodex to LinkedIn because the small businesses with which they connect have been vetted by American Express.29 American Express benefits because the service has significantly reduced customer churn.

■

To fight online purchasing, many retail chains offer loyalty programs that offer buyers rewards such as coupons, free purchases, or money back. Some chains offer buyers an elite status: bigger spenders get better rewards, but the status lasts only one year to encourage continual shopping.

■

Automakers know that brand loyalty is money in the bank. In addition to purchase “loyalty” discounts, many are now turning to service to reward—and keep—customers. General Motors offers the “GM Preferred Owner” program. Those customers get credits for having their cars serviced at the dealership, credits which count toward discounts on repair work or new vehicles. BMW offers its buyers four years of free maintenance, years that give dealers time to nurture relationships with customers.30

Remember that audience benefits must be appropriate for the audience before they work. Tylenol tried a new ad campaign that said, “We put our love into Tylenol.” Upset customers who remembered the Tylenol cyanide poisonings wrote in saying they didn’t want anyone putting anything into their Tylenol.31 Sometimes it is hard to know what your audience wants. A classic example is “feature creep” in electronic goods. Unfortunately, consumers seem to want lots of features in their electronics when they buy them, but then become frustrated trying to use them and return the devices. In the United States, product returns cost more than $100 billion.32 Research has shown that over half the wares are in complete working order; consumers just cannot operate them.33

Writing or Speaking to Multiple Audiences with Different Needs LO 2-7 Many business and administrative messages go not to a single person but to a larger audience. When the members of your audience share the same interests and the same level of knowledge, you can use the principles outlined above for individual readers or for members of homogeneous groups. But often different members of the audience have different needs. Researcher Rachel Spilka has shown that talking to readers both inside and outside the organization helped corporate engineers adapt their documents successfully. Talking to readers and reviewers helped writers involve readers in the planning process, understand the social and political relationships

Chapter 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience

among readers, and negotiate conflicts orally rather than depending solely on the document. These writers were then able to think about content as well as about organization and style, appeal to common grounds (such as reducing waste or increasing productivity) that multiple readers shared, and reduce the number of revisions needed before documents were approved.34 When it is not possible to meet everyone’s needs, meet the needs of gatekeepers and decision makers first. Figure2.5 offers strategies for creating documents for multiple audiences. Although you will probably use different styles, and sometimes include different content, when communicating with multiple audiences, you need to keep your core message consistent. Engineers might need more technical information than managers, but the core messages they receive should not be conflicting in any way. Figure 2.5

Strategies for Documents with Multiple Audiences

Content and number of details ■ ■ ■

Provide an overview or executive summary for readers who want just the main points. In the body of the document, provide enough detail for decision makers and for anyone else who could veto your proposal. If the decision makers don’t need details that other audiences will want, provide those details in appendixes—statistical tabulations, earlier reports, and so forth.

Organization ■ ■

Use headings and a table of contents so readers can turn to the portions that interest them. Organize your message based on the decision makers’ attitudes toward it.

Level of formality ■ ■ ■

Avoid personal pronouns. You ceases to have a specific meaning when several different audiences use a document. If both internal and external audiences will use a document, use a slightly more formal style than you would in an internal document. Use a more formal style when you write to international audiences.

Technical level ■ ■ ■

In the body of the document, assume the degree of knowledge that decision makers will have. Put background and explanatory information under separate headings. Then readers can use the headings and the table of contents to read or skip these sections, as their knowledge dictates. If decision makers will have more knowledge than other audiences, provide a glossary of terms. Early in the document, let readers know that the glossary exists.

Summary by Learning Objectives LO 2-1

How to identify your audience.

The primary audience will make a decision or act on the basis of your message. The secondary audience may be asked by the primary audience to comment on your message or to implement your ideas after they’ve been approved. The auxiliary audience encounters the message but does not have to interact with it. A gatekeeper controls whether the message gets to the primary audience.

A watchdog audience has political, social, or economic power and may base future actions on its evaluation of your message. LO 2-2

Ways to analyze different kinds of audiences.

The most important tools in audience analysis are common sense and empathy. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator can help you analyze individuals.

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Demographic and psychographic characteristics can help you analyze groups. LO 2-3

How to choose channels to reach your audience.

A communication channel is the means by which you convey your message to your audience. Different channels have different strengths and weaknesses, which need to be matched to the audience. LO 2-4

How to adapt your message to your audience.

The following questions help guide a careful audience analysis: ■ What will the audience’s initial reaction be to the message? ■ How much information does the audience need? ■ What obstacles must you overcome? ■ What positive aspects can you emphasize? ■ What expectations does the audience have about the appropriate language, contents, and organization of messages? ■ How will the audience use the document? LO 2-5

How to characterize good audience benefits.

following your policies, or adopting your ideas. Benefits can exist for policies and ideas as well as for goods and services. Good benefits are adapted to the audience, based on intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivators, supported by clear logic, explained in adequate detail, and phrased in you-attitude. Extrinsic benefits simply aren’t available to reward every desired behavior; further, they reduce the satisfaction in doing something for its own sake. LO 2-6

How to create audience benefits.

To create audience benefits, ■ Identify the feelings, fears, and needs that may motivate your audience. ■ Identify the features of your product or policy that could meet the needs you’ve identified. ■ Show how the audience can meet their needs with the features of the policy or product. LO 2-7

How to communicate with multiple audiences.

When you write to multiple audiences, use the primary audience to determine level of detail, organization, level of formality, and use of technical terms and theory.

Audience benefits are advantages that the audience gets by using your services, buying your products,

Continuing Case The All-Weather Case, set in an HR department in a manufacturing company, extends through all 19 chapters and is available at www.mhhe.com/locker11e. The portion for this chapter asks students to prepare an audience analysis for an in-house presentation.

Exercises and Cases 2.1

Reviewing the Chapter

1. Who are the five different audiences your message may need to address? (LO 2-1) 2. What are some characteristics to consider when analyzing individuals? (LO 2-2) 3. What are some characteristics to consider when analyzing groups? (LO 2-2) 4. What are some questions to consider when analyzing organizational culture? (LO 2-2) 5. What is a discourse community? Why will discourse communities be important in your career? (LO 2-2) 6. What are standard business communication channels? (LO 2-3)

*Go to www.mhhe.com/locker11e for additional Exercises and Cases.

7. What kinds of electronic channels seem most useful to you? Why? (LO 2-3) 8. What are considerations to keep in mind when selecting channels? (LO 2-3) 9. What are 12 questions to ask when considering how to adapt your message to your audience? (LO 2-4) 10. What are four characteristics of good audience benefits? (LO 2-5) 11. What are three ways to identify and develop audience benefits? (LO 2-6) 12. What are considerations to keep in mind when addressing multiple audiences? (LO 2-7)

Chapter 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience

2.2

Reviewing Grammar

Good audience analysis requires careful use of pronouns. Review your skills with pronoun usage by doing grammar exercise B.5, Appendix B.

2.3

Identifying Audiences: I

In each of the following situations, label the audiences as gatekeeper, primary, secondary, auxiliary, or watchdog audiences (all audiences may not be in each scenario): 1. Kent, Carol, and Jose are planning to start a website design business. However, before they can get started, they need money. They have developed a business plan and are getting ready to seek funds from financial institutions for starting their small business. 2. Barbara’s boss asked her to write a direct-mail letter to potential customers about the advantages of becoming a preferred member of their agency’s travel club. The letter will go to all customers of the agency who are more than 65 years old. 3. Paul works for the mayor’s office in a big city. As part of a citywide cost-cutting measure, a blueribbon panel has recommended requiring employees who work more than 40 hours in a week to take compensatory time off rather than being paid overtime. The only exceptions will be the

2.4

Identifying Audiences: II

Reread the first sidebar in this chapter, “Audiences for a General,” and answer the following questions: 1. Who would be Powell’s gatekeeper, primary, secondary, auxiliary, and watchdog audiences?

2.5

■

2. What potential conflicts can you imagine among his audiences involving expectations for press conferences? Discuss your answers in small groups.

Analyzing Multiple Audiences

Like most major corporations, the U.S. Census Bureau has multiple, conflicting audiences, among them the president, Congress, press, state governments, citizens (both as providers and users of data), statisticians, and researchers. ■

police and fire departments. The mayor asks Paul to prepare a proposal for the city council, which will vote on whether to implement the change. Before they vote, council members will hear from (1) citizens, who will have an opportunity to read the proposal and communicate their opinions to the city council; (2) mayors’ offices in other cities, who may be asked about their experiences; (3) union representatives, who may be concerned about the reduction in income that will occur if the proposal is implemented; (4) department heads, whose ability to schedule work might be limited if the proposal passes; and (5) the blueribbon panel and good-government lobbying groups. Council members come up for reelection in six months. 4. Sharon, Steven’s boss at Bigster Corporation, has asked him to write an e-mail for everyone in her division, informing them of HR’s new mandatory training sessions on new government regulations affecting Bigster’s services.

For the bureau, who might serve as gatekeeper, primary, secondary, auxiliary, and watchdog audiences? What kinds of conflicting goals might these audiences have?

■ ■ ■

What would be appropriate benefits for each type of audience? What kinds of categories might the bureau create for its largest audience (citizens)? How do some of the posters at the website below differ for different audiences? “In-Language Fact Sheets, Posters and Key Dates,” U.S. Census Bureau, http://www.census.gov/2010census/partners/ materials/inlangfacts.php#arabic

2.6

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Choosing a Channel to Reach a Specific Audience

Suppose your organization wants to target a product, service, or program for each of the following audiences. What would be the best channel(s) to reach that group in your city? To what extent would that channel reach all group members? 1. Parents of autistic children. 2. Ballroom dancers.

2.7

1. 2. 3. 4.

Write fewer e-mails. Volunteer at a local food pantry. Volunteer to recruit interns at a job fair. Attend team-building activities every other Friday afternoon. 5. Attend HR seminars on health policy changes.

As your instructor directs, a. Identify the motives or needs that might be met by each of the activities. b. Develop each need or motive as an audience benefit in a full paragraph. Use additional paragraphs for the other needs met by the activity. Remember to use you-attitude!

Identifying Objections and Audience Benefits

Think of an organization you know something about, and answer the following questions for it: 1. Your organization is thinking about developing a knowledge management system that requires workers to input their knowledge and experience in their job functions into the organizational database. What benefits could the knowledge management system offer your organization? What drawbacks are there? Who would be the easiest to convince? Who would be the hardest? 2. New telephone software would efficiently replace your organization’s long-standing human phone operator who has been a perennial welcoming voice to incoming callers. What objections might people in your organization have to replacing the operator? What benefits might your organization receive? Who would be easiest to convince? Who would be the hardest?

2.9

Nontraditional college students. Parents whose children play basketball. People who are blind. Mothers who are vegan. People who are interested in improvisation. Dog owners.

Identifying and Developing Audience Benefits

Listed here are several things an organization might like its employees to do:

2.8

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

3. Your organization is thinking of outsourcing one of its primary products to a manufacturer in another country where the product can be made more costefficiently. What fears or objections might people have? What benefits might your organization receive? Who would be easiest to convince? Who would be hardest? As your instructor directs, a. Share your answers orally with a small group of students. b. Present your answers in an oral presentation to the class. c. Write a paragraph developing the best audience benefit you identified. Remember to use you-attitude.

Analyzing Benefits for Multiple Audiences

The U.S. Census Bureau lists these benefits from cooperating with the census: “Census information affects the numbers of seats your state occupies in the U.S. House of Representatives. And people from many walks of life use census data to advocate for causes, rescue disaster victims, prevent diseases, research markets, locate pools of skilled workers and more.

Chapter 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience

“When you do the math, it’s easy to see what an accurate count of residents can do for your community. Better infrastructure. More services. A brighter tomorrow for everyone. In fact, the information the census collects helps to determine how more than $400 billion of federal funding each year is spent on infrastructure and services like: ■ Hospitals ■ Job training centers ■ Schools ■ Senior centers ■ Bridges, tunnels and other public works projects ■ Emergency services”35

How well do these benefits meet the four characteristics of good audience benefits discussed in this chapter?

2.10

Addressing Your Audience’s Need for Information

“Tell me about yourself.” This may be the most popular opening question of job interviews, but it’s also a question that you’ll encounter in nearly any social situation when you meet someone new. Although the question may be the same, the answer you give will change based upon the rhetorical situation: the audience, purpose, and context of the question. For each of the following situations in a–g, ask yourself these questions to help create a good response: 1. How will the audience react to your answer? Will the audience see the message as important? What information will you need to include in your answer to keep their attention? 2. How will the audience use your answer? Why is the audience asking the question? What information is relevant to the audience and what information can you leave out? 3. How much information does the audience need? What information do they already know about you? What level of detail do they need? 4. What are the audience’s expectations about your answer? What are the appropriate word choices

2.11

and tone for your answer? What topics should you avoid (at least for now)? 5. What are the physical conditions that will affect your answer? Where are you (e.g., outside, in a noisy room, on the phone)? How much time do you have to give your response? Write your response to the statement “Tell me about yourself.” Assume that the question is being asked by a. A recruiter at a career fair in your university’s auditorium. b. A recruiter in a job interview in a small interview or conference room. c. An attractive male or female at a popular weekend nightspot. d. Your instructor on the first day of class. e. Your new roommate on your first day in the dormitory. f. A new co-worker on your first day at a new job. g. A new co-worker on your first day volunteering at your local food pantry.

Analyzing Individuals

Read about the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator on page 29. On the web, take one of the free tests similar to the Myers-Briggs. Read about your personality type and consider how accurate the description may be. Print your results.

As your instructor directs, a. Share your results orally with a small group of students and discuss how accurately the type indicator describes you. Identify some of the differences among your personality types and consider how the differences would affect efforts to collaborate on projects.

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Identify other students in the classroom with the same combination of personality traits. Create a brief oral presentation to the class that describes your type indicator and explains how the pros and cons of your personality will affect group dynamics in collaborative work.

2.12

http://www.thesqueakywheel.com http://www.yelp.com What does each site do? What are good features of each site? What are drawbacks? As your instructor directs, a. Discuss your findings in an e-mail to your instructor. b. Share your findings in small groups. c. As a group, make a presentation to your classmates.

Evaluating a New Channel

To combat software piracy, Microsoft tried an unusual communication channel. A new software update turned screens black on computers using pirated software; the update also posted a message to switch to legitimate software copies. The update did not prevent people from using their machines, and they could manually change their wallpaper back to its previous design. But the black screen returned every 60 minutes. Microsoft said there was little protest except in China, where ironically the software piracy problem is greatest.36 In small groups, discuss this practice. 1. What do you think of this channel?

2.14

Write a brief e-mail to your instructor describing your results, assessing how well the results reflect your personality, and suggesting how your personality traits might affect your work in class and in the workplace.

Getting Customer Feedback

Smart businesses want to know what their customers and clients are saying about their products and services. Many websites can help them do so. Check some of the common sites for customer comments. Here is a list to get you started: http://www.amazon.com http://www.angieslist.com http://getsatisfaction.com http://www.my3cents.com http://www.suggestionbox.com

2.13

2. Is it ethical? 3. Do you think it helped or hurt Microsoft profits in China? 4. How do you think receivers of the black screen reacted? As your instructor directs, a. Post your findings electronically to share with the class. b. Present your findings in an e-mail to your instructor. c. Present your findings in an oral presentation to the class.

Discussing Ethics

1. What do you think about the practice of companies giving perks such as free samples to bloggers to discuss their products? Does your opinion change according to the expense of the perk (free tissues versus tablet computers, for instance)? How can you tell if bloggers have been influenced by the companies whose products they discuss? 2. What do you think about the practice of law firms using social media to find plaintiffs? Is it any worse to use social media than print or TV ads? Why? Look at some of the sites provided by law firms. Try http://www.oil-rig-explosions.com/; http://www.consumerwarningnetwork.com/; http://www.sokolovelaw.com/legal-help/ dangerous-drugs/birth-control.

How persuasive is the content? 3. What do you think about the practice of tracking consumers’ Internet surfing and selling the information to marketers? Does the tracking seem more intrusive when it is combined with off-line records such as shopping and credit card records? 4. What do you think about the practice of companies asking their employees to take health screenings and then giving them hundreds of dollars off their health insurance if they do so? What benefits do you see for employees? Drawbacks? Is this just a way to penalize employees who refuse by making them pay more for health insurance?

Chapter 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience

2.15

Banking on Multiple Audiences

Bruce Murphy, an executive at KeyBank, tackled a new problem: how to extend banking services to a new audience—people who use banks intermittently or not at all. It is a large group, estimated at 73 million people. Together, they spend an estimated $11 billion in fees at places such as check-cashing outlets, money-wire companies, and paycheck lenders (companies offering cash advances on future paychecks). However, they are a tough audience. Many of them have a deep distrust of banks or believe banks will not serve them. Murphy also faced another tough audience: bank managers who feared attracting forgeries and other bad checks and thus losing money. One manager actually said, “Are you crazy? These are the very people we’re trying to keep out of the bank!” To attract the new customers, KeyBank cashes payroll and government checks for a 1.5% fee, well below the

2.16

2.44% average for check-cashing outlets. The bank also started offering free financial education classes. In fact, the bank even has a program to help people with a history of bounced checks to clear their records by paying restitution and taking the financial education class. The program is growing, both among check-cashing clients and branches offering the services, to the satisfaction of both audiences.37 ■ What are some other businesses that could expand services to underserved populations? ■ What services would they offer? ■ What problems would they encounter? ■ What audience appeals could they use to attract clients or customers?

Announcing a Tuition Reimbursement Program

Assume your organization is considering reimbursing workers for tuition and fees for job-related courses. As director of education and training, you will present to company executives a review of pros and cons for the program. To prepare, you have composed a list of questions you know they may have. Pick a specific organization that you know something about, and answer the following questions about it. 1. What do people do on the job? What courses or degrees could help them do their current jobs even better? 2. How much education do people already have? How do they feel about formal schooling? 3. How busy are employees? Will most have time to take classes and study in addition to working 40 hours a week (or more)? 4. Is it realistic to think that people who get more education would get higher salaries? Or is money for increases limited? Is it reasonable to think that most

2.17

people could be promoted? Or does the organization have many more low-level than high-level jobs? How much loyalty do employees have to this particular organization? Is it “just a job,” or do they care about the welfare of the organization? How competitive is the job market? How easy is it for the organization to find and retain qualified employees? Is the knowledge needed for the job changing, or is knowledge learned 5 or 10 years ago still up-to-date? How competitive is the economic market? Is this company doing well financially? Can its customers or clients easily go somewhere else? Is it a government agency dependent on tax dollars for funding? What about the current situation makes this an especially good time to hone the skills of the employees you have? Do you support the program? Why or why not?

Crafting a Letter for a Particular Audience

Your supervisor at a fitness center wants to increase the organization’s membership and has asked you to write a letter to the three primary population segments in your town: retirees, college students, and working professionals with families. Using the following fitness benefits your supervisor gave you to help you get started, write a version of a letter targeted at each of the three audiences. 1. Become a member with no sign-up fees. 2. Attend free nutrition classes to help with weight control and optimal fitness.

3. Attend any of our many fitness classes, scheduled for your convenience. 4. Enjoy the new zero-entry indoor/outdoor pool with lap lanes. 5. Use the large selection of free weights and exercise machines. 6. Lose weight and feel your healthiest with a personal trainer, who will guide you toward your fitness goals. Remember these benefits were just to get you started; you are expected to come up with more on your own.

Part 1

2.18

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

Analyzing Your Co-Workers

What do your co-workers do? What hassles and challenges do they face? To what extent do their lives outside work affect their responses to work situations? What do your co-workers value? What are their pet peeves? How committed are they to organizational goals? How satisfying do they find their jobs? Are the people you work with quite similar to each other, or do they differ from each other? How?

Present your answers in an oral presentation to the class. c. Present your answers in an e-mail to your instructor. d. Share your answers with a small group of students and write a joint e-mail reporting the similarities and differences you found.

As your instructor directs, a. Share your answers orally with a small group of students.

2.19

Analyzing the Audiences of Noncommercial Web Pages

Analyze the implied audiences of two web pages of two noncommercial organizations with the same purpose (combating hunger, improving health, influencing the political process, etc.). You could pick the home pages of the national organization and a local affiliate, or the home pages of two separate organizations working toward the same general goal. 1. Do the pages work equally well for surfers and for people who have reached the page deliberately? 2. Possible audiences include current and potential volunteers, donors, clients, and employees. Do the pages provide material for each audience? Is the material useful? Complete? Up-to-date? Does new material encourage people to return?

2.20

As your instructor directs, a. Share your results orally with a small group of students. b. Present your results orally to the class. c. Present your results in an e-mail to your instructor. Attach copies of the home pages. d. Share your results with a small group of students, and write a joint e-mail reporting the similarities and differences you found. e. Post your results in an e-mail message to the class. Provide links to the two web pages.

Analyzing a Discourse Community

Analyze the way a group you are part of uses language. Possible groups include 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

3. What assumptions about audiences do content and visuals suggest? 4. Can you think of ways that the pages could better serve their audiences?

Work teams. Sports teams. Sororities, fraternities, and other social groups. Churches, mosques, synagogues, and temples. Geographic or ethnic groups. Groups of friends. Questions to ask include the following:

1. What specialized terms might not be known to outsiders? 2. What topics do members talk or write about? What topics are considered unimportant or improper? 3. What channels do members use to convey messages? 4. What forms of language do members use to build goodwill? To demonstrate competence or superiority?

5. What strategies or kinds of proof are convincing to members? 6. What formats, conventions, or rules do members expect messages to follow? 7. What are some nonverbal ways members communicate? As your instructor directs, a. Share your results orally with a small group of students. b. Present your results in an oral presentation to the class. c. Present your results in an e-mail to your instructor. d. Share your results with a small group of students, and write a joint e-mail reporting the similarities and differences you found.

Chapter 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience

Notes 1. Isabel Briggs Myers, Introduction to Type (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1980). The material in this section follows Myers’s paper. 2. Isabel Briggs Myers and Mary H. McCaulley, Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1985), 248–51. 3. Miguel Bustillo, “Wal-Mart Adds Guns Alongside Butter,” Wall Street Journal, April 28, 2011, B1; and Karen Talley and Shelly Banjo, “With More on Shelves, Wal-Mart Profit Rises,” Wall Street Journal, May 18, 2012, B3. 4. “Internet 2012 in Numbers,” Royal Pingdom, January 16, 2013, http://royal.pingdom.com/2013/01/16/internet2012-in-numbers/; and Sara Radicati, ed., “Email Market, 2012–2016—Executive Summary,” The Radicati Group, accessed May 4, 2013, http://www.radicati.com/wp/ wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Email-Market-2012-2016 -Executive-Summary.pdf. 5. Ann Zimmerman, “Can Electronics Stores Survive?” Wall Street Journal, August 31, 2012, B1. 6. Jessica E. Vascellaro and Sam Schechner, “TV Lures Ads but Viewers Drop Out,” Wall Street Journal, September 21, 2011, B1. 7. Frances Frei and Anne Morriss, Uncommon Service: How to Win by Putting Customers at the Core of Your Business (Boston: Harvard Business Review Press, 2012), 152. 8. Nate Silver, The Signal and the Noise: Why So Many Predictions Fail—But Some Don’t (New York: Penguin, 2012), 139-40. 9. “Statistics and Facts on Online Advertising in the U.S.,” Statista, accessed March 6, 2013, http://www.statista .com/topics/1176/online-advertising/. 10. Marc Gunther, “Hard News,” Fortune, August 6, 2007, 82. 11. Pew Research Center for the People & the Press, “In Changing News Landscape, Even Television Is Vulnerable: Trends in News Consumption: 1991–2012,” September 27, 2012, http://www.people-press.org/files/legacy-pdf/2012% 20News%20Consumption%20Report.pdf. 12. Christopher S. Stewart, “King of TV for Now, CBS Girds for Digital Battle,” Wall Street Journal, November 30, 2012, A1. 13. Pew Research Center for the People & the Press, “In Changing News Landscape, Even Television is Vulnerable.” 14. Ibid. 15. Suzanne Vranica, “Hanger Ads Ensure Message Gets Home,” Wall Street Journal, March 12, 2007, B4; and Curtis Peters, “Your Ad Here: As Marketers Fight for Consumer Eyeballs, Everything Has Become a Billboard,” Bloomberg Businessweek, August 6, 2012, 73. 16. Elizabeth Olson, “The Ken Doll Turns 50, and Wins a New Face,” New York Times, March 21, 2011, http://www .nytimes.com/2011/03/22/business/media/22adco.html. 17. Peters, “Your Ad Here.” 18. Ibid.

19. Joe Palca, “Wanna Play? Computer Gamers Help Push Frontier of Brain Research,” NPR, March 5, 2013, http:// www.npr.org/2013/03/05/173435599/wanna-playcomputer-gamers-help-push-frontier-of-brain-research? ft51&f51001. 20. “Steamy Hot Line Raises Pulses, Library Funds,” Des Moines Register, May 9, 2007, 4A. 21. Elaine Pofeldt, “David vs. Goliath,” Fortune, July 4, 2011, 30. 22. Lev Grossman, “A Game for All Ages,” Time, May 15, 2006, 39. 23. Cecilie Rohwedder, “Store of Knowledge: No. 1 Retailer in Britain Uses ‘Clubcard’ to Thwart Wal-Mart: Data from Loyalty Program Help Tesco Tailor Products as It Resists U.S. Invader,” Wall Street Journal, June 6, 2006, A1. 24. Frederick Herzberg, “One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?” Harvard Business Review 65, no. 5 (1987), 109–20. 25. Teri Agins, “Over-40 Finds a Muse,” Wall Street Journal, December 6, 2008, W4. 26. Frei and Morriss, Uncommon Service, 57–58. 27. Ryan Chittum, “Price Points: Good Customer Service Costs Money. Some Expenses Are Worth It—and Some Aren’t,” Wall Street Journal, October 30, 2006, R7. 28. Mikotaj Jan Piskorski, “Social Strategies That Work,” Harvard Business Review 90, no. 11 (November 2012): 119. 29. Ibid. 30. Joseph B. White, “How Auto Makers Keep You Coming Back,” Wall Street Journal, January 23, 2013, D3. 31. Richard M. Smith, “Stay True to Your Brand: Ad Guru Rance Crain Says the Rules Are Eternal,” Newsweek, May5, 2008, E18. 32. James Surowiecki, “The Financial Page Feature Presentation,” The New Yorker, May 28, 2007, 28. 33. Reuters, “Scientist: Complexity Causes 50% of Product Returns,” Computer World, May 6, 2006, http:// www.computerworld.com/s/article/109254/Scientist_ Complexity_causes_50_of_product_returns. 34. Rachael Spilka, “Orality and Literacy in the Workplace: Process- and Text-Based Strategies for Multiple Audience Adaptation,” Journal of Business and Technical Communication 4, no. 1 (1990): 44–67. 35. Quoted from “Why It’s Important,” U.S. Census Bureau: United States Census 2010, accessed March 6, 2013, http:// www.census.gov/2010census/about/why- important .php. 36. Loretta Chao and Juliet Ye, “Microsoft Tactic Raises Hackles in China: In Antipiracy Move, Software Update Turns Screens Black and Urges Users to Buy Legal Windows Copies,” Wall Street Journal, October 23, 2008, B4. 37. Ann Carrns, “Banks Court a New Client: The Low-Income Earner: KeyCorp Experiments with Check Cashing,” Wall Street Journal, March 16, 2007, A1, A14.

Building Goodwill

Chapter Outline You-Attitude ■

How to Create You-Attitude ■ You-Attitude beyond the Sentence Level

Positive Emphasis ■

How to Create Positive Emphasis ■ How to Check Positive Emphasis

Positive Psychology Tone, Power, and Politeness ■

Use Courtesy Titles for People You Don’t Know Well ■ Be Aware of the Power Implications of the Words You Use

Trust Using Technology to Build Goodwill Reducing Bias in Business Communication ■

Making Language Nonsexist Making Language Nonracist and Nonageist ■ Talking about People with Disabilities and Diseases ■ Choosing Bias-Free Photos and Illustrations ■

Summary by Learning Objectives

NEWSWORTHY COMMUNICATION Diversifying Macy’s

n important aspect of building goodwill is increasing inclusiveness. Such an increase is not only ethical, but also good business. The Hispanic population, for instance, is the fastest growing in the United States. Macy’s department store knows that more than half of its potential customers in its largest urban markets are minorities, so the chain has designed a new training program

as an opportunity for minority vendors to sell their products in Macy’s stores. The program instructs participants in the business of largestore retail. Macy’s has agreed to order from some of its new graduates. New products include cosmetics targeted at African-American and polyethnic women, dresses targeted primarily for Hispanic women, and sexy plussize swimsuits for larger women.

Macy’s is trying to reach out to their minority shoppers, as the chain has been receiving more requests for specialized items for minority groups. According to the University of Georgia’s Selig Center for Economic Growth, by 2015, Hispanic shoppers will spend $1.5 trillion on goods and services, black shoppers $1.2 trillion, and Asian shoppers $775 billion. Macy’s stores hope to be a big part of that expanding market.

Source: Cotton Timberlake, “At Macy’s, the Many Colors of Cash,” Bloomberg Businessweek, January 16, 2012, 21–22.

Learning Objectives

Airline Goodwill Southwest Airlines is known for fun, caring flight attendants who joke, sing, and generally try to entertain and please customers. Another airline known for goodwill is Alaska Airlines. It gives its agents the power to find solutions for customers left behind for any reason. One regional manager reported receiving a call from a customer he had helped five years ago. The man’s grandchild had just gone into cardiac arrest, and he needed a flight from Honolulu to Seattle. He had found all flights full, but the agent found him a flight right away. Goodwill efforts like this have given Alaska Airlines top ratings and many awards. Adapted from Gretchen Spreitzer and Christine Porath, “Creating Sustainable Performance,” Harvard Business Review 90, no. 1–2 (January–February 2012): 95.

After studying this chapter, you will know how to LO 3-1

Create you-attitude.

LO 3-2

Create positive emphasis.

LO 3-3

Improve tone in business communications.

LO 3-4

Reduce bias in business communications.

oodwill eases the challenges of business and administration. Companies have long been aware that treating customers well pays off in more sales and higher profits. Today we work in a service economy: the majority of jobs are in service, where goodwill is even more important.1 ■

Amazon’s corporate mission says, “We seek to be Earth’s most customercentric company for four primary customer sets: consumers, sellers, enterprises, and content creators.” Jeff Bezos, Amazon’s founder and CEO, has a video on YouTube titled “Everything I Know.” It has three points: obsess over customers, invent on behalf of customers, and think long term, because doing so allows you to serve customers better.2

■

Tony Hsieh built Zappos around customer service, including a service attitude toward vendors.

■

A study by Vanderbilt University found that a portfolio of companies whose ACSI (American Consumer Satisfaction Index) scores were above the national average far outperformed the market. Over a 10-year period, the portfolio gained 212%; the Standard & Poor’s 500 stock index rose 105% over the sameperiod.3

Goodwill is important internally as well as externally. More and more organizations are realizing that treating employees well is financially wise as well as ethically sound. Happy employees result in less staff turnover, thus reducing hiring and training costs. A University of Pennsylvania study of 3,000 companies found that investing 10% of revenue on capital improvement boosted company productivity 3.9%, but spending the money on employees increased productivity 8.5%, or more than twice as much.4 The QuikTrip chain invests heavily in employees, offering them better pay, benefits, training, and schedules than competitors do. That investment pays off: QuikTrip’s sales per labor hour are 66% higher than average for convenience store chains.5 You-attitude, positive emphasis, trust, and bias-free language are four ways to help build goodwill. All four help you achieve your purposes and make your messages friendlier, more persuasive, more professional, and more humane. They suggest that you care not just about money but also about the needs and interests of your customers, employees, and fellow citizens.

Chapter 3

You-Attitude

Building Goodwill

LO 3-1

You-attitude is a communication style that looks at things from the audience’s point of view, emphasizing what the audience wants or needs to know, respecting the audience’s intelligence, and protecting the audience’s ego. For years Microsoft fought lax enforcement of intellectual property laws in China. The software company finally started making progress when it looked at the problem from the Chinese point of view. Government officials were ignoring the problem because many of their people made a living from illegal copies and because Microsoft prices put the products beyond the reach of most citizens. With this new perspective, Microsoft began creating jobs in China and lowering the prices of its products—in return for better law enforcement.6

How to Create You-Attitude Expressing what you want to say with you-attitude is a crucial step in communicating your concern to your audience. In fact, pundits such as Daniel Pink and Thomas Friedman consider it one of the major skills that computers and outsourcing will not replace in the near future. Pink notes, for instance, that software and websites have replaced much routine legal work; legal researchers in other countries do much work for American law firms. Pink asks, “So which lawyers will remain? Those who can empathize with their clients and understand their true needs.”7 To apply you-attitude on a sentence level, use the following techniques: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Talk about the audience, not about yourself. Refer specifically to the customer’s request or order. Don’t talk about feelings, except to congratulate or offer sympathy. In positive situations, use you more often than I. Use we when it includes the audience. 5. In negative situations, avoid the word you. Protect the audience’s ego. Use passive verbs and impersonal expressions to avoid assigning blame. Revisions for you-attitude do not change the basic meaning of the sentence. However, revising for you-attitude often makes sentences longer because the revision is more specific and has more information. Long sentences need not be wordy. Wordiness means having more words than the meaning requires. We can add information and still keep the writing concise.

1. Talk about the audience, not about yourself. Your audience wants to know how they benefit or are affected. When you provide this information, you make your message more complete and more interesting. Lacks you-attitude:

We have negotiated an agreement with Apex Rent-a-Car that gives you a discount on rental cars.

You-attitude:

As a Sunstrand employee, you can now get a 20% discount when you rent a car from Apex.

2. Refer specifically to the customer’s request or order. A specific referral, rather than a generic your order or your policy, helps show that your customer

Customer Service Becoming Popular with Businesses More companies are improving customer service to increase both sales and market share. Walgreens is training pharmacists to work more closely with patients with chronic illnesses such as diabetes. Pharmacists are replacing their normal 3- to 5-minute meetings with regular 20- to 45-minute patient meetings to help them manage their disease. American Express is training call-center agents to focus on building customer loyalty rather than processing the call quickly. Even Comcast, which has had well-publicized problems with customer service, is giving its 24,000 call-center agents additional training. Adapted from Dana Mattioli, “Customer Service as a Growth Engine,” Wall Street Journal, June 7, 2010, B6.

Progressive Goodwill When a Progressive Insurance customer has an accident, the company sends a response van, which often arrives before the police or tow truck. The employee asks emotionally intelligent questions and often writes a check for the customer on the spot. How can Progressive afford this service and still maintain competitive rates? As it happens, fraud is a big problem in the insurance industry, and an immediate on-the-scene observer is a big help in preventing fraud. Lawsuits are another big cost in the industry, and asking if the customer is OK reduces the tendency to sue. Adapted from Frances Frei and Anne Morriss, Uncommon Service: How to Win by Putting Customers at the Core of Your Business (Boston: Harvard Business Review Press, 2012), 65–66.

Part 1

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

is important to you. If your customer is an individual or a small business, it’s friendly to specify the content of the order. If you’re dealing with a company with which you do a great deal of business, give the invoice or purchase order number. Lacks you-attitude:

Your order ...

You-attitude (to individual):

The desk chair you ordered ...

You-attitude (to a large store):

Your invoice #783329 ...

3. Don’t talk about feelings, except to congratulate or offer sympathy. In most business situations, your feelings are irrelevant and should be omitted. Lacks you-attitude:

We are happy to extend you a credit line of $15,000.

You-attitude:

You can now charge up to $15,000 on your American Express card.

It is appropriate to talk about your own emotions in a message of congratulations or condolence. You-attitude:

Congratulations on your promotion to district manager! I was really pleased to read about it.

Don’t talk about your audience’s feelings, either. It’s distancing to have others tell us how we feel—especially if they are wrong. Lacks you-attitude:

You’ll be happy to hear that Open Grip Walkway Channels meet OSHA requirements.

You-attitude:

Open Grip Walkway Channels meet OSHA requirements.

You’ll be happy to hear that your scholarship has been renewed.

You-attitude:

Congratulations! Your scholarship has been renewed.

4. In positive situations, use you more often than I. Use we when it includes the audience. Talk about the audience, not you or your company. Lacks you-attitude:

We provide health insurance to all employees.

You-attitude:

You receive health insurance as a full-time Procter & Gamble employee.

Most readers are tolerant of the word I in e-mail messages, which seem like conversation. But edit paper documents to use I rarely if at all. I suggests that you’re concerned about personal issues, not about the organization’s problems, needs, and opportunities. We works well when it includes the reader. Avoid we if it excludes the reader (as it would in a letter to a customer or supplier or as it might in an e-mail about what we in management want you to do).

Chapter 3

Building Goodwill

5. In negative situations, avoid the word you. Protect your audience’s ego. Use passive verbs and impersonal expressions to avoid assigning blame. When you report bad news or limitations, use a noun for a group of which your audience is a part instead of you so people don’t feel that they’re singled out for bad news. Lacks you-attitude:

You must get approval from the director before you publish any articles or memoirs based on your work in the agency.

You-attitude:

Agency personnel must get approval from the director to publish any articles or memoirs based on their work at the agency.

Use passive verbs and impersonal expressions to avoid blaming people. Passive verbs describe the action performed on something, without necessarily saying who did it. (See Chapter 5 for a full discussion of passive verbs.) In most cases, active verbs are better. But when your audience is at fault, passive verbs may be useful to avoid assigning blame. Impersonal expressions omit people and talk only about things. Normally, communication is most lively when it’s about people—and most interesting to audiences when it’s about them. When you have to report a mistake or bad news, however, you can protect your audience’s ego by using an impersonal expression, one in which things, not people, do the acting. Lacks you-attitude:

You made no allowance for inflation in your estimate.

You-attitude (passive):

No allowance for inflation has been made in this estimate.

You-attitude (impersonal):

This estimate makes no allowance for inflation.

A purist might say that impersonal expressions are illogical: An estimate, for example, is inanimate and can’t “make” anything. In the pragmatic world of business writing, however, impersonal expressions help you convey criticism tactfully.

You-Attitude beyond the Sentence Level Good messages apply you-attitude beyond the sentence level by using content and organization as well as style to build goodwill. To create goodwill with content, ■

Be complete. When you have lots of information to give, consider putting some details in an appendix, which may be read later.

■

Anticipate and answer questions your audience is likely to have.

■

Show why information your audience didn’t ask for is important.

■

Show your audience how the subject of your message affects them.

To organize information to build goodwill, ■

Put information your audience is most interested in first.

■

Arrange information to meet your audience’s needs, not yours.

■

Use headings and lists so readers can find key points quickly.

You-Attitude with International Audiences When you communicate with international audiences, look at the world from their point of view. The United States is in the middle of most of the maps sold in the United States. It isn’t in the middle of maps sold elsewhere in the world. The United States clings to a measurement system that has been abandoned by most of the world. When you write for international audiences, use the metric system. Even pronouns and direction words need attention. We may not feel inclusive to readers with different assumptions and backgrounds. Here won’t mean the same thing to a reader in Bonn as it does to one in Boulder.

Part 1

Figure 3.1

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

An E-mail Lacking You-Attitude

[emailprotected] Carol McFarland

Rollins equipment check

list

Dear Ms. McFarland: Not youattitude

We are now ready to issue a check to Rollins Equipment in the amount of $14,207.02. To receive said check, you will deliver to Sounds dictatorial me a release of the mechanic's liens in the amount of $14,207.02.

Lacks you-attitude Before we can release the check, we must be satisfied that the release is in the proper form. We must insist that we be provided n o s with a stamped original of the lien indicating the document number in the appropriate district court where it is filed. Also, use rd to Foc ative either the release must be executed by an officer of Rollins Equipment, or we must be provided with a letter from an officer of Ha g e n read, Rollins Equipment authorizing another individual to execute the release. remember

Please contact the undersigned so that an appointment can be scheduled for this transaction. Sincerely,

Jargon

Kelly J. Pickett 450 INDUSTRIAL PARK CLEVELAND, OH 44120 (216) 555-4670 FAX: (216) 555-4672

SIMMONS STRUCTURAL STEEL

[emailprotected]

Consider the e-mail in Figure3.1. As the red marginal notes indicate, many individual sentences in this message lack you-attitude. Fixing individual sentences could improve the e-mail. However, it really needs to be totally rewritten. Figure3.2 shows a possible revision of this e-mail. The revision is clearer, easier to read, and friendlier.

Positive Emphasis

LO 3-2

With some bad news—announcements of layoffs, product defects and recalls, salary cuts—straightforward negatives build credibility. (See Chapter 10 on how to present bad news.) Sometimes negatives are needed to make people

Chapter 3

Figure 3.2

Building Goodwill

An E-mail Revised to Improve You-Attitude

[emailprotected] Carol McFarland

Allen Contract

Dear Ms. McFarland: s use Foc what on der rea ts ge

the view h t from t of t i w n in rts poi po Sta ain der's m ea r

Let's clear up the lien in the Allen contract.

Rollins will receive a check for $14,207.02 when you give us a release for the mechanic's lien of $14,207.02. To assure us that the release is in the proper form, it akes List m see that o tw o t 1. Give us a stamped original of the lien indicating the document's district asy o do e eds t that e court number, and n r e read gs—and can thin econd 2. Either the s done in be a. Have an officer of Rollins Equipment sign the release ays. two w

or b. Give us a letter from a Rollins officer authorizing someone else to sign the release.

Please call to tell me which way is best for you. Sincerely,

izes Emphas s r' e d a re choice

Kelly J. Pickett 450 INDUSTRIAL PARK es CLEVELAND, OH 44120 ber mak e. on sion num (216) 555-4670 Ext. 5318 Exten for reader to ph it easy FAX: (216) 555-4672

SIMMONS STRUCTURAL STEEL

[emailprotected]

take a problem seriously. In some messages, such as disciplinary notices and negative performance appraisals, one of your purposes is to make the problem clear. Even here, avoid insults or attacks on your audience’s integrity or sanity. In most situations, however, it’s better to be positive. Researchers have found that businesspeople responded more positively to positive than to negative language and were more likely to say they would act on a positively worded request.8 In groundbreaking research for Met Life, Martin Seligman found that optimistic salespeople sold 37% more insurance than pessimistic colleagues. As a result, Met Life began hiring optimists even when they failed to meet the company’s other criteria. These “unqualified” optimists outsold pessimists 21% in their first year and 57% in the next.9

Part 1

How Much Positive Emphasis Is Enough? Researchers studied more than 60 companies, transcribing meetings and coding all sentences for positive and negative words. They then constructed a ratio of positive to negative statements and found a sharp dividing line. Organizations with a ratio above 2.9:1 were flourishing; those with a ratio below that were not doing well economically. John Gottman, the renowned marriage researcher, did similar research with married couples. He found a ratio of 5:1 was needed for a flourishing marriage. Within wedlock, a ratio of 2.9:1 was a danger signal. Adapted from Martin E.P. Seligman, Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-Being (New York: Free Press, 2011), 66–67.

Figure 3.3 afraid anxious avoid bad careless damage delay delinquent deny difficulty eliminate error except fail fault fear hesitate ignorant ignore

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

Positive emphasis is a way of looking at things. Is the bottle half empty or half full? You can create positive emphasis with the words, information, organization, and layout you choose. “Part-time” may be a negative phrase for someone seeking full-time employment, but it may be a positive phrase for college students seeking limited work hours while they pursue their education. It may become even more positive if connected with flexible hours.

How to Create Positive Emphasis Create positive emphasis by using the following techniques: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Avoid negative words and words with negative connotations. Beware of hidden negatives. Focus on what the audience can do rather than on limitations. Justify negative information by giving a reason or linking it to an audience benefit. 5. Put the negative information in the middle and present it compactly. Choose the technique that produces the clearest, most accurate communication.

1. Avoid negative words and words with negative connotations. Figure3.3 lists some common negative words. If you find similar words in a draft, try to substitute a more positive word. When you must use a negative, use the least negative term that will convey your meaning: Negative:

We have failed to finish taking inventory.

Better:

We haven’t finished taking inventory.

Still better:

We will be finished taking inventory Friday.

Negative:

If you can’t understand this explanation, feel free to call me.

Better:

If you have further questions, just call me.

Still better:

Omit the sentence.

Negative Words to Avoid impossible lacking loss neglect never no not objection problem reject sorry terrible trivial trouble wait weakness worry wrong

Some dis- words: disapprove dishonest dissatisfied

Many in- words: inadequate incomplete inconvenient insincere injury

Some mis- words: misfortune missing mistake

Many un- words: unclear unfair unfortunate unfortunately unpleasant unreasonable unreliable unsure

Chapter 3

Building Goodwill

Omit double negatives. Negative:

Never fail to back up your documents.

Better:

Always back up your documents.

When you must use a negative term, use the least negative word that is accurate. Negative:

Your balance of $835 is delinquent.

Better:

Your balance of $835 is past due.

Getting rid of negatives has the added benefit of making what you write easier to understand. Sentences with three or more negatives are hard to interpret correctly.10

2. Beware of hidden negatives. Some words are not negative in themselves but become negative in context. But and however indicate a shift, so, after a positive statement, they are negative. I hope and I trust that suggest that you aren’t sure. Patience may sound like a virtue, but it is a necessary virtue only when things are slow. Even positives about a service or product may backfire if they suggest that in the past the service or product was bad. Negative:

I hope this is the information you wanted. [Implication: I’m not sure.]

Better:

Enclosed is a brochure about road repairs scheduled for 2014.

Still better:

The brochure contains a list of all roads and bridges scheduled for repair during 2014, specific dates when work will start, and alternate routes.

Negative:

Please be patient as we switch to the automated system. [Implication: You can expect problems.]

Better:

If you have questions during our transition to the automated system, please call Melissa Morgan.

Still better:

You’ll be able to get information instantly about any house on the market when the automated system is in place. If you have questions during the transition, please call Melissa Morgan.

Negative:

Now Crispy Crunch tastes better. [Implication: it used to taste terrible.]

Better:

Now Crispy Crunch tastes even better.

Removing negatives does not mean being arrogant or pushy. Negative:

I hope that you are satisfied enough to place future orders.

Arrogant:

I look forward to receiving all of your future business.

Better:

Whenever you need computer chips, a call to Mercury is all it takes for fast service.

When you eliminate negative words, be sure to maintain accuracy. Words that are exact opposites will usually not be accurate. Instead, use specifics to be both positive and accurate. Negative:

The exercycle is not guaranteed for life.

Not true:

The exercycle is guaranteed for life.

True:

The exercycle is guaranteed for 10 years.

Legal phrases also have negative connotations for most readers and should be avoided whenever possible.

3. Focus on what the audience can do rather than on limitations. When there are limits, or some options are closed, focus on the alternatives that remain.

Thanks a Lot at Work Typically, people do not tend to show gratitude in the workplace, even though research suggests they should. According to a study by the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM), showing appreciation for workers cuts turnover and increases profit. So, is showing appreciation that big of a deal? Apparently so. Some bosses fear employees will then take advantagte of them. Others worry about embarrassing themselves or the employee. Still others think they show their appreciation with a paycheck. Asking employees how they want feedback, including expressions of gratitude, is a good approach. One supervisor who was going to praise an employee in front of supervisors discovered that action would be embarrassing for the employee; instead, the employee asked to use the boss’s executive parking spot for a day. Adapted from Sue Shellenbarger, “Showing Appreciation at the Office? No, Thanks,” Wall Street Journal, November 12, 2012, D3.

Four Ways to Say “Yes” “Yes, I want to help.” Even if you have to say no personally, there is usually an alternative yes. By helping to solve someone’s problem—say, by referring them to someone who might be able to help them— you keep the positive energy in motion. “Yes, you can do better.” Rather than say, “This is terrible,” it’s a lot more motivating to say, “You do such terrific work. I’m not sure this is up to your caliber.” “Yes, I see you.” It only takes a minute to send a thank-you note or respond to an unsolicited résumé. “Yes, your talents lie elsewhere.” Warren Buffett says that he’s never fired anyone. He has just helped them to find the right job. Quoted from Linda Kaplan Thaler and Robin Koval, The Power of Nice: How to Conquer the Business World with Kindness (New York: Currency, 2006), 84–87.

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The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

Negative:

We will not allow you to charge more than $5,000 on your Visa account.

Better:

You can charge $5,000 on your new Visa card.

or:

Your new Visa card gives you $5,000 in credit that you can use at thousands of stores nationwide.

As you focus on what will happen, check for you-attitude. In the previous example, “We will allow you to charge $5,000” would be positive, but it lacks you-attitude. When you have a benefit and a requirement the audience must meet to get the benefit, the sentence is usually more positive if you put the benefit first. Negative:

You will not qualify for the student membership rate of $55 a year unless you are a full-time student.

Better:

You get all the benefits of membership for only $55 a year if you’re a fulltime student.

4. Justify negative information by giving a reason or linking it to an audience benefit. A reason can help your audience see that the information is necessary; a benefit can suggest that the negative aspect is outweighed by positive factors. Be careful, however, to make the logic behind your reason clear and to leave no loopholes. Negative:

We cannot sell individual pastel sets.

Loophole:

To keep down packaging costs and to help you save on shipping and handling costs, we sell pastel sets in packages of 12.

Suppose the customer says, “I’ll pay the extra shipping and handling. Send me six.” If you truly sell only in packages of 12, you need to say so: Better:

To keep down packaging costs and to help customers save on shipping and handling costs, we sell pastel sets only in packages of 12.

If you link the negative element to a benefit, be sure it is a benefit your audience will acknowledge. Avoid telling people that you’re doing things “for their own good.” They may have a different notion of what their own good is. You may think you’re doing customers a favor by limiting their credit so they don’t get in over their heads and go bankrupt. They may think they’d be better off with more credit so they could expand in hopes of making more sales and more profits.

5. Put the negative information in the middle and present it compactly. Put negatives at the beginning or end only if you want to emphasize the negative. To de-emphasize a written negative, put it in the middle of a paragraph rather than in the first or last sentence and in the middle of the message rather than in the first or last paragraphs. When a letter or memo runs several pages, remember that the bottom of the first page is also a position of emphasis, even if it is in the middle of a paragraph, because of the extra white space of the bottom margin. (The first page gets more attention because it is on top and the reader’s eye may catch lines of the message even when he or she isn’t consciously reading it; the tops and bottoms of subsequent pages don’t get this extra attention.) If possible, avoid placing negative information at the bottom of the first page. Giving a topic lots of space emphasizes it. Therefore, you can de-emphasize negative information by giving it as little space as possible. Give negative information only once in your message. Don’t list negatives with bulleted or numbered lists. These lists take space and emphasize material.

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How to Check Positive Emphasis All five of the strategies listed above help create positive emphasis. However, you should always check to see that the positive emphasis is appropriate, sincere, and realistic. As you read at the beginning of this section, positive emphasis is not always appropriate. Some bad news is so serious that presenting it with a positive tone is insensitive, if not unethical. Layoffs, salary cuts, and product defects are all topics in this category. Some positive emphasis is so overdone that it no longer seems sincere. The used-car sales rep selling a rusting auto is one stereotype of insincerity. A more common example for most businesspeople is the employee who gushes praise through gritted teeth over your promotion. Most of us have experienced something similar, and we know how easy it is to see through the insincerity. Positive emphasis can also be so overdone that it clouds the reality of the situation. If your company has two finalists for a sales award, and only one award, the loser does not have second place, which implies a second award. On the other hand, if all sales reps win the same award, top performers will feel unappreciated. Too much praise can also make mediocre employees think they are doing great. Keep your communications realistic. Restraint can help make positive emphasis more effective. Conductor Otto Klemperer was known for not praising his orchestra. One day, pleased with a particularly good rehearsal, he spoke a brusque “good.” His stunned musicians broke into spontaneous applause. Klemperer rapped his baton on his music stand to silence them and said, “Not that good.”11

Positive Psychology Positive psychology is a branch of psychology that studies how to help people thrive. Its goal is to increase thriving, also called flourishing, well-being, and happiness. This goal connects closely with goodwill, you-attitude, and positive tone, all of which help employee happiness. A workplace that looks at its culture from its employees’ perspectives, a culture where praise and goodwill are part of daily communications, will help increase thriving in employees. According to the Harvard Business Review, which devoted an entire issue to positive psychology, research from various fields “makes the link between a thriving workforce and better business performance absolutely clear.”12 Even Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke has called happiness an important gauge for measuring economic progress.13

It’s a Disaster No company wants to admit that its movie was a flop. Instead, promoters put a positive spin on the situation with creative word choices such as these: ■

It may have fizzled here, but look elsewhere . . . . “Our audience in the United States was a little bit more narrow than we wanted, but the . . . overseas reaction has exceeded our expectations.”

■

People really liked the movie. Just not very many . . . . “The right audience came, but not in the numbers we needed.”

■

Not our fault—the other guy’s movie was just more popular . . . . “It’s hard for me to really digest where we’re going when you’re up against the second weekend of a blockbuster.”

■

Who cares about box office anyway? . . . “It’s one of those pictures that will do well on video-on-demand.”

Bullets quoted from John Horn, “How to Spin a Bomb,” Los Angeles Times, March 10, 2013, C1, http:// articles.washingtonpost.com/201104-06/politics/35262376_1_ congress-legislators-federalbudget

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Why should companies care if their employees are happy? Happy employees help improve corporate profits, as well as other corporate goals: ■

A University of Michigan study found that thriving employees had 125% less burnout, 46% more job satisfaction, and 32% more commitment to the company than their peers who weren’t thriving. They also had 16% better performance, according to their managers. These findings were true across industries and job types.14

■

A University of Illinois meta-analysis of 225 studies found that happy employees are 31% more productive, have 37% higher sales, and are three times more creative than unhappy ones.15

■

Researchers studying a retail chain found that stores with thriving employees earned $21 more per square foot of retail space than the other stores, resulting in $32 million additional profit for the chain.16

Thriving employees also are healthier and more energetic, go beyond the call of duty, and attract other good workers.17 How do organizations boost happiness among their employees? One major way is to provide meaningful, challenging work with a variety of tasks. Allow employees to continue to learn on the job and to make decisions that affect their work.18 Use you-attitude to help all employees see that what they do daily makes a difference. Another major way to boost happiness is to facilitate social support. Social factors such as teamwork or mentoring, plus environmental factors such as break rooms and exercise areas, help enhance social connections among workers. Social support doesn’t have to be time consuming. One large health care provider with 11,000 employees instituted a 10/5 rule to increase social support for both employees and patients. Anyone within 10 feet of another person had to make eye contact and smile; anyone within 5 feet had to say hello. Adopting this rule led to an increase in patient satisfaction and significant improvement in medical practice provider scores.19 On the job, as well as in individual lives, the frequency of positive experiences is a better predictor of happiness than the intensity of such experiences. Job happiness may depend more on daily experiences, such as interesting work projects, pleasant interactions with colleagues, and positive feedback from managers, than with big-ticket items such as salary and job title.20

Tone, Power, and Politeness

LO 3-3

Tone is the implied attitude of the communicator toward the audience. If the words of a document seem condescending or rude, tone is a problem. Norms for politeness are cultural and generational; they also vary from office to office. Tone is tricky because it interacts with context and power. Language that is acceptable within one group may be unacceptable if used by someone outside the group. Words that might seem friendly from a superior to a subordinate may seem uppity if used by the subordinate to the superior. Similarly, words that may be neutral among peers may be seen as negative if sent by a superior to subordinate. Using the proper tone with employees can have huge economic impact for a business. Disgruntled employees are suing more than ever before, and disputes over wages or hours frequently can be brought as class action suits, making them even more expensive.21

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The desirable tone for business writing is businesslike but not stiff, friendly but not phony, confident but not arrogant, polite but not groveling. Several guidelines will help you achieve the tone you want.

Use Courtesy Titles for People You Don’t Know Well Most U.S. organizations use first names for everyone, whatever their age or rank. But many people don’t like being called by their first names by people they don’t know or by someone much younger. When you talk or write to people outside your organization, use first names only if you’ve established a personal relationship. If you don’t know someone well, use a courtesy title (discussed later in this chapter).

Be Aware of the Power Implications of the Words You Use “Thank you for your cooperation” is generous coming from a superior to a subordinate; it’s not appropriate in a message to your superior. Different ways of asking for action carry different levels of politeness.22 Order: (lowest politeness)

Turn in your time card by Monday.

Polite order: (midlevel politeness)

Please turn in your time card by Monday.

Indirect request: (higher politeness) Time cards should be turned in by Monday. Question: (highest politeness)

Would you be able to turn in your time card by Monday?

Higher levels of politeness may be unclear. In some cases, a question may seem like a request for information to which it’s acceptable to answer, “No, I can’t.” In other cases, it will be an order, simply phrased in polite terms. You need more politeness if you’re asking for something that will inconvenience the audience and help you more than the person who does the action. Generally, you need less politeness when you’re asking for something small, routine, or to the audience’s benefit. Some discourse communities, however, prefer that even small requests be made politely.

Trust Financial crises, Internet scams, and shoddy goods and services have all contributed to a lack of trust of the commercial world. Trust is a vital element in goodwill, and it is necessary on the personal level as well as the corporate level. Robert Hurley, author of The Decision to Trust: How Leaders Can Create High Trust Companies, says, “Trust comes from delivering every day on what you promise—as a manager, an employee, and a company. It involves constant teamwork, communication and collaboration.”23 A large part of trust comes from honesty and ethics. But by themselves, these qualities are not enough. As Hurley notes, trust is also delivering on our commitments. This delivery is important for you when you start a new job and then move up the organizational rungs. Do you do what you are expected to do? What you say you will do? Or do you say yes to more than you can possibly deliver? Honoring commitments is also important for the organization: does it deliver the expected quality and quantity of goods and services in a timely fashion? Trust also comes from the goodwill communication skills described in this chapter, and especially from skill with you-attitude. Are you good at discerning the interests of others, and fulfilling or promoting those interests fairly and ethically? Clear, open, and timely communication helps build and maintain trust.

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Using Technology to Build Goodwill Most organizations use a variety of technology-based communications to create and sustain goodwill with their customers, clients, and employees. (See Chapter 9 for a full discussion of communication technologies.) Companies have long used technologies such as electronic newsletters for employees and e-mail addresses where customers could ask questions. Now most organizations also have websites and Facebook pages featuring new products and services, tips on using products and services, and customer forums. Toy companies offer creative ways to use their products. News organizations use blogs to provide commentary. Many companies use Facebook to enter into dialogues with customers, Twitter to solve customer complaints quickly, or YouTube clips to offer instructions, or even humorous content about their products and services. In 2013, even the staid Securities and Exchange Commission started allowing corporate news postings on Twitter and corporate Facebook sites, as long as companies have informed their investors which channels will be used.24 Many companies are getting creative in their efforts to use technology to increase goodwill. ■

Charmin launched its SitOrSquat app that helps people find a nearby public restroom, and then allows them to rate it for cleanliness. They also created the hashtag #tweetfromtheseat.25

■

Energy drink Red Bull, sponsor of extreme sports, broadcast on YouTube Felix Baumgartner’s enormous skydive that broke the sound barrier.26

■

April Fools’ Day traditionally finds jokes on social media. Past jokes include an Ikea self-assembly lawn mower, posted on Facebook; glass-bottomed airplanes for a new flying experience, posted on Virgin Atlantic Airways’ founder Richard Branson’s blog; and an announcement by Twitter that it was banishing vowels unless users paid a fee.27

As one advertising consultant says, “If you can give someone a laugh, you can create good will for your brand.”28

Reducing Bias in Business Communication

LO 3-4

The makeup of the U.S. population is changing. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, ■

Women outnumber men.

■

More women than men are attaining associate, bachelor’s, and master’s degrees.

■

For people 16 and older, more women (41.7%) than men (35.1l%) work in management, professional, and related occupations.

■

The Hispanic population is the fastest growing in the country; it numbered 50.5 million in the 2010 census. Four states (California, Hawaii, New Mexico, and Texas) plus the District of Columbia have a “majority-minority” population, where more than 50% are part of a minority group.

■

Projections show non-Hispanic whites becoming a minority soon after 2040.

■

The number of people 65 and older is also growing; that population now numbers over 41 million, and 6.5 million of them are still in the workforce.29

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These figures highlight the growing diversity of the workplace and the need to communicate with appropriate, unbiased language. Bias-free language is language that does not discriminate against people on the basis of sex, physical condition, race, ethnicity, age, religion, or any other category. It includes all audience members, helps to sustain goodwill, is fair and friendly, and complies with the law. Check to be sure that your language is bias-free. Doing so is ethical; it can also avoid major problems and lawsuits. ■

Josef Ackermann, chief executive of Deutsche Bank, was mocked in the international news when he said at a news conference that including women on the bank’s all-male executive board would make it “more colorful and prettier too.” The publicity added to mistrust of the bank at an awkward time when it was lobbying to dissuade German policy makers from imposing restrictions.30

■

Conservative advice expert Dr. Laura Schlessinger resigned abruptly from her syndicated radio show after a controversy arising from her multiple use of a racial epithet while talking to an African American caller.

■

Famous radio personality Don Imus was fired by CBS after making racist comments about the Rutgers University women’s basketball team.

Making Language Nonsexist Nonsexist language treats both sexes neutrally. Check to be sure your messages are free from sexism in four areas: job titles, courtesy titles and names, pronouns, and other words and phrases.

Job Titles Use neutral titles that do not imply a job is held only by men or only by women. Many job titles are already neutral: accountant, banker, doctor, engineer, inspector, manager, nurse, pilot, secretary, technician, to name a few. Other titles reflect gender stereotypes and need to be changed. Instead of

Use

Businessman

A specific title: executive, accountant, department head, owner of a small business, men and women in business, businessperson

Chairman

Chair, chairperson, moderator

Fireman

Firefighter

Foreman

Supervisor

Mailman

Mail carrier

Salesman

Salesperson, sales representative

Waitress

Server

Woman lawyer

Lawyer

Workman

Worker, employee. Or use a specific title: crane operator, bricklayer, etc.

Courtesy Titles and Names E-mails to people you know normally do not use courtesy titles. However, letters and e-mails to people with whom you have a more formal relationship require courtesy titles in the salutation unless you’re on a first-name basis with your reader. (See Appendix A for examples of e-mail and letter formats.) When you know your reader’s name and gender, use courtesy titles that do not indicate marital status: Mr. for men and Ms. for women. Ms. is particularly useful

Women in the Workplace In 2011 the White House released a comprehensive report on the status of U.S. women; it was the first update in nearly 50 years. Drawn from federal statistics, the report highlights women’s changing roles, showing a shift toward education and employment. Women caught up with men in college attendance; in fact, younger women are more likely than younger men to obtain a college degree. And more women go on to graduate school than do men. Women are also flocking to the workplace; the number of women age 20 or older working outside the home doubled over the period covered by the report. These gains, however, have not carried over into wage equity: in 2009 women still earned only about 75 percent of what their male counterparts earned. Women also continue to fill a major share of administrative jobs, but lag behind men in pursuing higher-paying science- and math-oriented careers. The report also points out that U.S. single-parent families are still headed predominantly by women, resulting in more women than men living below the poverty line. Adapted from “White House Releases First Comprehensive Federal Report on the Status of American Women in Almost 50 Years,” press release, White House, March 1, 2011, http://www.whitehouse.gov/ the-press-office/2011/03/01/ white-house-releases-firstcomprehensive-federal-reportstatus-american-.

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when you do not know what a woman’s marital status is. However, even when you happen to know that a woman is married or single, you still use Ms. unless you know that she prefers another title. There are, however, two exceptions: 1. If the woman has a professional title, use that title if you would use it for a man. Dr. Kristen Sorenson is our new company physician. The Rev. Elizabeth Townsley gave the invocation. 2. If the woman prefers to be addressed as Mrs. or Miss, use the title she prefers rather than Ms. (You-attitude takes precedence over nonsexist language: address the reader as she—or he—prefers to be addressed.) To find out if a woman prefers a traditional title, ■

Check the signature block in previous correspondence. If a woman types her name as (Miss) Elaine Anderson or (Mrs.) Kay Royster, use the title she designates.

■

Notice the title a woman uses in introducing herself on the phone. If she says, “This is Robin Stine,” use Ms. when you write to her. If she says, “I’m Mrs. Stine,” use the title she specifies.

■

When you’re writing job letters or crucial correspondence, call the company and ask the receptionist which title your reader prefers.

In addition to using parallel courtesy titles, use parallel forms for names. Not Parallel

Parallel

Members of the committee will be Mr. Jones, Mr. Yacone, and Lisa.

Members of the committee will be Mr. Jones, Mr. Yacone, and Ms. Melton. or Members of the committee will be Irving, Ted, and Lisa.

When you know your reader’s name but not the gender, either ■

Call the company and ask the receptionist, or

■

Use the reader’s full name in the salutation: Dear Chris Crowell: Dear J. C. Meath:

When you know neither the reader’s name nor gender, you have three options: ■

Omit the salutation and use a subject line in its place. (See Figure A.2, Simplified Format.) SUBJECT: RECOMMENDATION FOR BEN WANDELL

■

Use the reader’s position or job title: Dear Loan Officer: Dear Registrar:

■

Use a general group to which your reader belongs: Dear Investor: Dear Admissions Committee:

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Pronouns When you refer to a specific person, use the appropriate gender pronouns: In his speech, John Jones said . . . In her speech, Judy Jones said . . .

When you are referring not to a specific person but to anyone who may be in a given job or position, traditional gender pronouns are sexist. Sexist:

a. Each supervisor must certify that the time sheet for his department is correct.

Sexist:

b. When the nurse fills out the accident report form, she should send one copy to the Central Division Office.

Business communication uses four ways to eliminate sexist generic pronouns: use plurals, use second-person you, revise the sentence to omit the pronoun, or use pronoun pairs. Whenever you have a choice of two or more ways to make a phrase or sentence nonsexist, choose the alternative that is the smoothest and least conspicuous. The following examples use these methods to revise sentences a and b above.

Avoiding Offense Biased or offensive language and images detract from your overall message; they also cause companies expensive trouble. In one 2013 month alone, several companies had to pull advertising and apologize for the content. ■

General Motors had to retract a television ad for the new Chevy Trax because it featured a song recorded in 1938 that included offensive lyrics about Asians.

■

PepsiCo took down an online advertising campaign for Mountain Dew that showed a talking goat beating up a woman, running from police, and appearing in a police lineup with several black men.

■

Hyundai apologized for an online ad for a new vehicle that emits only water vapor. The ad showed a man attempting to commit suicide unsuccessfully by inhaling the Hyundai’s harmless emissions.

1. Use plural nouns and pronouns. Nonsexist:

a. Supervisors must certify that the time sheets for their departments are correct.

Note: When you use plural nouns and pronouns, other words in the sentence may need to be made plural too. In the example above, plural supervisors have plural time sheets and departments. Avoid mixing singular nouns and plural pronouns. Nonsexist but lacks agreement:

b. When the nurse fills out the accident report, they should send one copy to the Central Division Office.

Because nurse is singular, it is incorrect to use the plural they to refer to it. The resulting lack of agreement is acceptable orally but is not yet acceptable in writing. Instead, use one of the other ways to make the sentence nonsexist. 2. Use you. Nonsexist:

a. You must certify that the time sheet for your department is correct.

Nonsexist:

b. When you fill out an accident report form, send one copy to the Central Division Office.

You is particularly good for instructions and statements of the responsibilities of someone in a given position. 3. Substitute an article (a, an, or the) for the pronoun, or revise the sentence so that the pronoun is unnecessary. Nonsexist:

a. The supervisor must certify that the time sheet for the department is correct.

Nonsexist:

b. The nurse will 1. Fill out the accident report form. 2. Send one copy of the form to the Central Division Office.

4. When you must focus on the action of an individual, use pronoun pairs. Nonsexist:

a. The supervisor must certify that the time sheet for his or her department is correct.

Nonsexist:

b. When the nurse fills out the accident report form, he or she should send one copy to the Central Division Office.

While advertising needs to catch attention, using racist, sexist, or offensive language and images grabs the wrong kind of attention. Focusing instead on building goodwill with all elements of your audience will help you have more success in your communication. Kevin Fallon, “GM Is Racist, Pepsi Is Sexist & More in the Week in Offensive Ads,” The Daily Beast, May 2, 2013, http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/05/ 02/gm-is-racist-pepsi-issexist-more-in-the-week-inoffensive-ads-video.html.

Part 1

Web Accessibility National organizations are suing under the Americans with Disabilities Act to make popular websites accessible for the deaf and blind. Target and Netflix lost court battles; eBay, Monster .com, Travelocity, and Ticketmaster have voluntarily tried to make their sites more accessible. Accessibility changes include these features: ■

For people with visual impairments, oral text; oral descriptions of photos; oral tags for name, address, and credit card number.

■

For people with hearing impairments, captions for videos.

■

For people with mobility impairments, sites that can be navigated without a mouse.

■

For people with cognitive impairments, plain language and good design.

Adapted from Joe Palazzolo, “Disabled Sue Over Web Shopping: Advocates for Blind, Deaf Say Netflix, Target Are Legally Obligated to Make Sites Easier to Navigate,” Wall Street Journal, March 22, 2013, B1.

Figure 3.4

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

Other Words and Phrases If you find any terms similar to those in the first column in Figure3.4 in your messages or your company’s documents, replace them with terms similar to those in the second column. Not every word containing man is sexist. For example, manager is not sexist. The word comes from the Latin manus meaning hand; it has nothing to do with maleness. Avoid terms that assume that everyone is married or is heterosexual. Biased: You and your husband or wife are cordially invited to the reception. Better: You and your guest are cordially invited to the reception.

Making Language Nonracist and Nonageist Language is nonracist and non-ageist when it treats all races and ages fairly, avoiding negative stereotypes of any group. Use the following guidelines to check for bias in documents you write or edit. Give someone’s race or age only if it is relevant to your story. When you do mention these characteristics, give them for everyone in your story—not just the non-Caucasian, non-young-to-middle-aged adults you mention. Refer to a group by the term it prefers. As preferences change, change your usage. Fifty years ago, Negro was preferred as a more dignified term than colored for African Americans. As times changed, black and African American replaced it. Gallup polls show that the majority of black Americans (about 60%) have no preference between the two terms. However, among those who do care, polls show a slight trend toward African American.31 Oriental has now been replaced by Asian. The term Latino is the most acceptable group term to refer to Mexican Americans, Cuban Americans, Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, Brazilianos, and other people with Central and Latin American backgrounds. (Latina is the term for an individual woman.) Better still is to refer to the precise group. The differences among various Latino groups are at least as great as the differences among Italian Americans, Irish Americans, Armenian Americans, and others descended from various European groups. Baby boomers, older people, and mature customers are more generally accepted terms than senior citizens or golden agers. Avoid terms that suggest competent people are unusual. The statement “She is an intelligent purple woman” suggests the writer expects most purple

Getting Rid of Sexist Terms and Phrases

Instead of

Use

Because

The girl at the front desk

The woman’s name or job title: “Ms. Browning,” “Rosa,” “the receptionist”

Call female employees women just as you call male employees men. When you talk about a specific woman, use her name, just as you use a man’s name to talk about a specific man.

The ladies on our staff

The women on our staff

Use parallel terms for males and females. Therefore, use ladies only if you refer to the males on your staff as gentlemen. Few businesses do, since social distinctions are rarely at issue.

Manpower

Personnel

The power in business today comes from both women and men.

Manhours

Hours or worker hours

Manning

Staffing

Managers and their wives

Managers and their guests

Managers may be female; not everyone is married.

Chapter 3

Building Goodwill

R-E-S-P-E-C-T

Organizations are making their business sites more accommodating to people with disabilities.

women to be stupid. “He is an asset to his race” suggests excellence in the race is rare. “He is a spry 70-year-old” suggests the writer thinks anyone that old has mobility issues.

Talking about People with Disabilities and Diseases A disability is a physical, mental, sensory, or emotional impairment that interferes with the major tasks of daily living. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 19% of Americans currently have a disability; of those, about 71% who were 21 to 64 years old and had a “nonsevere disability” were employed.32 The number of people with disabilities will rise as the populationages. To keep trained workers, more and more companies are making disability accommodations such as telecommuting, flexible hours, work shift changes, and assignment changes. When talking about people with disabilities, use people-first language to focus on the person, not the condition. People-first language names the person first, then adds the condition. Use it instead of the traditional noun phrases that imply the condition defines the person. In 2010, President Obama signed Rosa’s Law, which replaces “mentally retarded” with “an individual with an intellectual disability,” in most federal statutes.33 Instead of

Use

Because

The mentally retarded

People with an intellectual disability

The condition does not define the person or his or her potential.

Cancer patients

People being treated for cancer

Avoid negative terms, unless the audience prefers them. You-attitude takes precedence over positive emphasis: use the term a group prefers. People who

“Most major airlines and hotel chains provide disability training to employees.... I recognize when someone has been trained—to offer me a Braille menu, use my name when addressing me, or take a moment to orient me to a new environment. What I appreciate even more, though, is ... simple, common courtesy. “I don’t care how many pages in an employee manual somewhere are devoted to ... the dos and don’ts of interacting with someone who is deaf, blind, or mentally retarded. Among hundreds of experiences in airports and hotels, the one distinction that separates the (mostly) pleasing from the (occasionally) painful in my encounters has been the honest friendliness and respect with which I have or have not been treated. “Ask me where I’d like to sit, whether I need help getting there, and what other kinds of help I need. “Please, assume that I know more about my disability than anyone else ever could. “Respect me as you do any other customer who is paying for the same service, and have the grace to apologize if something does go wrong. “Too many companies, it seems to me, are busy shaking in their boots over the imagined high cost of accommodating people with disabilities when, in many instances, a good old-fashioned refresher course in manners would cover most bases.” Quoted from Deborah Kendrick, “Disabled Resent Being Patronized,” Columbus Dispatch, July 21, 1996, 3B. Reprinted with permission.

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lost their hearing as infants, children, or young adults often prefer to be called deaf, or Deaf in recognition of Deafness as a culture. But people who lose their hearing as older adults often prefer to be called hard of hearing, even when their hearing loss is just as great as that of someone who identifies him- or herself as part of the Deaf culture. Using the right term requires keeping up with changing preferences. If your target audience is smaller than the whole group, use the term preferred by that audience, even if the group as a whole prefers another term. Some negative terms, however, are never appropriate. Negative terms such as afflicted, suffering from, and struck down also suggest an outdated view of any illness as a sign of divine punishment. Instead of

Use

Because

Confined to a wheelchair

Uses a wheelchair

Wheelchairs enable people to escape confinement.

AIDS victim

Person with AIDS

Someone can have a disease without being victimized by it.

Abnormal

Atypical

People with disabilities are atypical but not necessarily abnormal.

Choosing Bias-Free Photos and Illustrations When you produce a document with photographs or illustrations, check the visuals for possible bias. Do they show people of both sexes and all races? Is there a sprinkling of various kinds of people (younger and older, people using wheelchairs, etc.)? It’s OK to have individual pictures that have just one sex or one race; the photos as a whole do not need to show exactly 50% men and 50% women. But the general impression should suggest that diversity is welcome and normal. Check relationships and authority figures as well as numbers. If all the men appear in business suits and the women in jeans, the pictures are sexist even if an equal number of men and women are pictured. If the only nonwhites pictured are factory workers, the photos support racism even when an equal number of people from each race are shown. The 2013 Sports Illustrated swimsuit issue aroused controversy for its use of natives as “props” and laborers.34

Summary by Learning Objectives LO 3-1

Create you-attitude.

You-attitude is a style of communication that looks at things from the audience’s point of view, emphasizing what the audience wants to know, respecting the audience’s intelligence, and protecting the audience’s ego. To create you-attitude 1. Talk about the audience, not about yourself. 2. Refer to the audience’s request or order specifically. 3. Don’t talk about feelings except to congratulate or offer sympathy.

4. In positive situations, use you more often than I. Use we when it includes the audience. 5. In negative situations, avoid the word you. Protect the audience’s ego. Use passive verbs and impersonal expressions to avoid assigning blame. Apply you-attitude beyond the sentence level by using organization and content as well as style to build goodwill.

Chapter 3

LO 3-2

Create positive emphasis.

Positive emphasis means focusing on the positive rather than the negative aspects of a situation. To create positive tone 1. Avoid negative words and words with negative connotations. 2. Beware of hidden negatives. 3. Focus on what the audience can do rather than on limitations. 4. Justify negative information by giving a reason or linking it to an audience benefit. 5. Put the negative information in the middle and present it compactly. Check to see that your positive emphasis is appropriate, sincere, and clear. Studies in positive psychology show that using goodwill within the organization leads to increases in well-being for employees and better business performance. Many companies are using social media such as Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube to increase positive emphasis and goodwill. LO 3-3

Improve tone in business communications.

LO 3-4

Building Goodwill

Reduce bias in business communications.

Bias-free language is fair and friendly; it complies with the law. It includes all members of your audience; it helps sustain goodwill. ■ Check to be sure your language is nonsexist, nonracist, and nonageist. ■ Communication should be free from sexism in four areas: job titles, courtesy titles and names, pronouns, and other words and phrases. ■ Ms. is the nonsexist courtesy title for women. Whether or not you know a woman’s marital status, use Ms. unless the woman has a professional title or unless you know she prefers a traditional title. ■ Four ways to make pronouns nonsexist are to use plurals, to use you, to revise the sentence to omit the pronoun, and to use pronoun pairs. ■ When you talk about people with disabilities or diseases, use the term they prefer. ■ When you produce newsletters or other documents with photos and illustrations, picture a sampling of the whole population, not just part of it.

The desirable tone for business communication is businesslike but not stiff, friendly but not phony, confident but not arrogant, polite but not groveling.

Continuing Case The All-Weather Case, set in an HR department in a manufacturing company, extends through all 19 chapters and is available at www.mhhe.com/locker11e. The portion for this chapter asks students to revise a message to increase youattitude, positive tone, and goodwill.

Exercises and Cases 3.1

*Go to www.mhhe.com/locker11e for additional Exercises and Cases.

Reviewing the Chapter

1. What are five ways to create you-attitude? (LO 3-1) 2. What are five ways to create positive emphasis? (LO 3-2) 3. How can you improve the tone of business messages? (LO 3-3)

4. What are different categories to keep in mind when you are trying to reduce bias in business messages? (LO 3-4) 5. What techniques can you use when you are trying to reduce bias in business messages? (LO 3-4)

3.2

Part 1

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

Evaluating the Ethics of Positive Emphasis

The first term in each pair is negative; the second is a positive term that is sometimes substituted for it. Which of the positive terms seem ethical? Which seem unethical? Briefly explain your choices. cost investment second mortgage home equity loan tax user fee

3.3

1. You will lose the account if you make a mistake and the customer is dissatisfied. 2. Avoid errors on customer reports by carefully proofreading. 3. Your account, #82654, is delinquent. If you neglect to pay this balance, your account will be sent to collections.

1. Applications that are postmarked after January 15 will not be accepted. 2. All new employees will not be able to receive benefits for 90 days.

usage charges

4. When you write a report, do not make claims that you cannot support with evidence. 5. Don’t drop in without an appointment. Your counselor or caseworker may be unavailable. 6. I am anxious to discuss my qualifications in an interview.

3. I will not be available by phone on Saturdays and Sundays. 4. Overtime cannot be processed without the supervisor’s signature. 5. Travel reimbursement forms will only be processed at the end of the month.

Identifying Hidden Negatives

Identify the hidden negatives in the following sentences and revise to eliminate them. In some cases, you may need to add information to revise the sentence effectively. 1. The seminar will help you become a better manager. 2. Thank you for the confidence you have shown in us by ordering one of our products. It will be shipped to you soon. 3. This publication is designed to explain how your company can start a recycling program.

3.6

credit card fees

Focusing on the Positive

Revise each of the following sentences to focus on the options that remain, not those that are closed off.

3.5

adrenaline challenge price change tax-paying hospital pre-owned car

Eliminating Negative Words and Words with Negative Connotations

Revise each of the following sentences to replace negative words with positive ones. Be sure to keep the meaning of the original sentence.

3.4

nervousness problem price increase for-profit hospital used car

4. I hope you find the information in this brochure beneficial to you and a valuable reference as you plan your move. 5. In thinking about your role in our group, I remember two occasions where you contributed something. 6. [In job letter] This job in customer service is so good for me; I am so ready to take on responsibility.

Improving You-Attitude and Positive Emphasis

Revise these sentences to improve you-attitude and positive emphasis. Eliminate any awkward phrasing. In some cases, you may need to add information to revise the sentence effectively. 1. You’ll be happy to learn that the cost of tuition will not rise next year.

2. Although I was only an intern and didn’t actually make presentations to major clients, I was required to prepare PowerPoint slides for the meetings and to answer some of the clients’ questions. 3. At DiYanni Homes we have more than 30 plans that we will personalize just for you.

Chapter 3

4. Please notify HR of your bank change as soon as possible to prevent a disruption of your direct deposit. 5. I’m sorry you were worried. You did not miss the deadline for signing up for a flexible medical spending account. 6. You will be happy to hear that our cell phone plan does not charge you for incoming calls. 7. The employee discount may only be used for purchases for your own use or for gifts; you may not

3.7

1. Mr. Brady, Mr. Barnes, and the new intern, Jodi, will represent our company at the job fair. 2. All sales associates and their wives are invited for cocktails. 3. Although he is blind, Mr. Morin is an excellent group leader. 4. Please join us for the company potluck! Ladies, please bring a main dish. Men, please bring chips and dip (store bought is fine). 5. Lee Torsad Pacific Perspectives 6300 West Coronado Blvd. Los Angles, CA Dear Sir:

6. Please stop by and say “hi” to our new IT guy. Be very polite; he is oriental. 7. I would prefer if you hired a female secretary; women are typically friendlier than men. 8. Please do not use the side elevator, because it is reserved for people who can’t walk. 9. Sue Corcoran celebrates her 50th birthday today. Stop by her cubicle at noon to get a piece of cake and to help us sing “The Old Grey Mare Just Ain’t What She Used to Be.” 10. Because older customers tend to be really picky, we will need to give a lot of details in our ads.

examples? Why are they inappropriate? How would you fix them?

Analyzing Goodwill Ethics: I

A study by a law professor shows that credit card companies make offers to people fresh out of bankruptcy. In the study of 341 families, almost 100% received credit card offers within a year after completing bankruptcy proceedings, and 87% of those offers mentioned the bankruptcy proceedings. In fact, 20% of the offers

3.10

buy items for resale. To prevent any abuse of the discount privilege, you may be asked to justify your purchase. 8. I apologize for my delay in answering your inquiry. The problem was that I had to check with our suppliers to see whether we could provide the item in the quantity you say you want. We can. 9. If you mailed a check with your order, as you claim, we failed to receive it. 10. This job sounds perfect for me.

Analyzing You-Attitude

This book gives examples of occasions when you-attitude is inappropriate. What are some other

3.9

Eliminating Biased Language

Explain the source of bias in each of the following, and revise to remove the bias.

3.8

Building Goodwill

came from companies the family had owed before the bankruptcy.35 In small groups, discuss whether you think this practice is ethical. Why or why not? What reasons exist for not offering new credit to people who have just gone through bankruptcy? Why might such people need new credit cards?

Analyzing Goodwill Ethics: II

Women-only networking events for employees and clients are occurring at some companies. Including activities such as spa retreats, boutique shopping, and cooking demonstrations, they are organized by women who want to network with female clients in their own way—at least some of the time.

How do you feel about women-only events? Are they ethical? Are they just as exclusionary as the traditional ball games or steak-and-cigar dinners have been for men? What about women who have male clients and vice versa?

3.11

Part 1

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

Analyzing a Form Letter Evaluate the use of positive tone. What is your overall impression of the letter?

Analyze the following form letter. Is it a goodwill message? Where does it show you-attitude? Where does it need more you-attitude?

Debbie Harrington 1436 Gooden Road Lincoln, NE 54367 THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION IS TIME SENSITIVE; PLEASE REVIEW CAREFULLY James Honda of Lincoln has partnered with Automobile Resellers, Inc., to replenish drastically reduced vehicle inventories. James Honda of Lincoln is in need of a number of high-demand pre-owned vehicles and records indicate that you may own one of these vehicles. Your 2009 Honda Civic has been classified as a high-demand vehicle. The purpose of this letter is to request the opportunity to BUY BACK your vehicle for perhaps more than you thought possible. Bring this letter for admittance to this event. Simply present it to a dealership representative who will assist you in this BUY BACK process. Also, you may have won up to $20,000. To see if your claim number is a guaranteed cash prize winner, simply visit James Honda of Lincoln on the event date and claim your prize. During this exciting event, James Honda of Lincoln has agreed to aggressively price its entire inventory of new and pre-owned cars, trucks, vans, and sport utilities. With rates as low as 0% and rebates up to $5,000, we are confident that you can upgrade your 2009 Honda Civic and in many cases reduce your current monthly payment with little out-of-pocket expense. Due to the nature of this event it will not be advertised to the general public. Your status as a customer as well as your possession of a high-demand vehicle entitles you to attend this exciting event. Appointments are recommended due to the anticipated response of this event. To schedule an appointment or if you are unable to attend on the below event date, please contact James Honda of Lincoln toll-free at 800.123.4567. EVENT DATE: Saturday, Nov 21st—9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. EVENT SITE: JAMES HONDA OF LINCOLN 220 Kitty Hawk Lincoln, NE 54367

As your instructor directs, a. Share your findings orally with a small group of students. b. Share your findings orally with the class.

c. Post your findings in an e-mail to the class. d. Summarize your findings in an e-mail to your instructor.

Chapter 3

3.12

Building Goodwill

Revising a Form Letter

Revise this form letter to improve positive tone and youattitude (and to catch spelling and punctuation errors): Dear customer, We wish you a Happy New Year from Happy Catalog. Its been awhile since we heard from you. We have a special offer to welcome you back. Our customers are the focus of what we do. All of our efforts center on exceeding our customer expectations. Happy Catalog stands behind everything we sell, as we have since 1986. No matter what your problem with anything we sell, we will fix it. We will provide you with even better service, tailored to meet you needs and guaranteed to offer more of the helpful, unique and hard to find merchandise we’re known for. Whether you choose to shop by phone, mail, or e-mail us, we promise to continually improve our process to better serve you. If you have been disappointed in any way, please accept our sincerest apology. We have a special offer, exclusively for you, to welcome you back. When you use the enclosed coupon, you’ll save 20% on any order, regardless of order size. Hurry, this offer will expire the beginning of February. Welcome back! Thank you for your business. Sincerly, I. M. President Happy Catalog.

3.13

Advising a Hasty Subordinate

Three days ago, one of your subordinates forwarded to everyone in the office a bit of e-mail humor he’d received from a friend. Titled “You know you’re Southern

when . . . ,” the message poked fun at Southern speech, attitudes, and lifestyles. Today you get this message from your subordinate:

Subject: Should I Apologize? I’m getting flamed left and right because of the Southern message. I thought it was funny, but some people just can’t take a joke. So far I’ve tried not to respond to the flames, figuring that would just make things worse. But now I’m wondering if I should apologize. What do you think?

Answer the message.

3.14

Responding to a Complaint

You’re the director of corporate communications; the employee newsletter is produced by your

office. Today you receive this e-mail message from Tonya Freira:

Subject: Complaint The section on the back of the employee newsletter referred to Mindy Kelso and me as “the girls at the front desk.” We are not “girls,” and we don’t see why our gender was even pointed out in the first place. We are customer service representatives and would like to be referred to that way.

Part 1

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

Write a response to Tonya Freira. Also, draft a message to your staff, reminding them to edit newsletter

3.15

Evaluating Bias in Visuals

Evaluate the portrayals of people in one of the following: Ads in one issue of a business magazine. ■ A company’s annual report. ■ A company’s web page. Do the visuals show people of both sexes and all races? Is there a sprinkling of people of various ages and physical conditions? What do the visuals suggest about who has power? ■

3.16

stories as well as external documents to replace biased language.

As your instructor directs, a. Share your findings orally with a small group of students. b. Post your findings in an e-mail to the class. c. Summarize your findings in an e-mail to your instructor. d. Present your findings in an oral presentation to the class. e. Join with a small group of students to create a written report about your combined findings.

Revising an E-mail for Positive Tone

Revise the following e-mail to improve positive tone. TO:

All Staff

SUBJECT:

Decorating Your Work Area

With the arrival of the holiday season, employees who wish to decorate their work areas should do so only with great caution. Don’t do something stupid that might burn down the entire office. If you wish to decorate, don’t forget the following guidelines: 1. If using decorative lights, don’t place them in obstructive places. 2. Do not overload your workstation with decorations that will interfere with your daily duties.

3.17

Don’t forget these guidelines, and we’ll have a great holiday season. Thank you for your cooperation.

Dealing with Negative Clients

An executive at one of your largest client companies is known for his negative attitude. He is feared for his sharp tongue and scathing attacks, and he bullies everyone. Everyone you know, including yourself, is afraid of him. Unfortunately, he is also the one who decides whether or not you get your annual contract. Your contract is up for renewal, and you have some new services you think his company would like.

3.18

3. Don’t forget to turn off and/or unplug all lights at the end of your workday. 4. Do not use hot lights; they can burn your countertop so it is imperative that everyone take care in selecting your lights. 5. Do not use decorations which will offend people of other religions. 6. Absolutely no candles are allowed.

In small groups, discuss at least four ways to handle Mr. Bully. Write up your two best to share with the whole class. Also write up the reasons you think these two approaches will work. Share your two approaches with the whole class, as a short oral presentation or online. As a class, select the two best approaches from those offered by the small groups. Discuss your criteria for selection and rejection.

Writing Business Thank-You Notes

Some businesses make a practice of sending goodwill messages to some of their customers. Pick a business you patronize that might logically send some thank-you notes. Write a suitable note and

design a tasteful visual for it. In a separate document, write an e-mail to your instructor explaining your design and content decisions.

Chapter 3

■

Questions you might want to consider: Who is your audience? Will you write to everyone? Will you target big spenders? Trendsetters? People who might become long-term customers? How will you identify your categories? What tone did you select? What words and phrases help produce that tone? What words and phrases

3.19

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did you avoid? What diction choices did you make to convey sincerity? What content did you choose? Why? What content choices did you discard? What design features did you choose? Why? What design features did you discard?

Evaluating You-Attitude and Positive Emphasis in University Websites

As they plan their college visits, many students begin by visiting university websites. Imagine you are a high school senior and a prospective student. Go to the “Prospective Students” part of your school’s website and read about housing, course offerings, and student life. Evaluate the information you find for you-attitude and positive emphasis. Compare the text for prospective students with the text on several sites targeted for current students. Does the tone change? In what ways? What information increases or decreases you-attitude? Now visit the website of another university. Review the same type of information for prospective students and compare it to that of your own school. Which school does a better job? Why?

3.20

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Building Goodwill

As your instructor directs, a. Share your findings orally with a small group of students. b. Share your findings orally with the class. c. Post your findings in an e-mail to the class. d. Summarize your findings in an e-mail to your instructor.

Revising a “Goodwill Disaster”

Li, an intern at All-Weather, a window manufacturer, has been asked to write a letter to a recent young customer

asking him if some new engineers can tour his gallery to see the products in use. Here is his draft:

Dear Mr. Mason, Executive Director, Iconic Art Gallery, St. Paul, MN You must be glad that you chose All-Weather’s energy efficient bow windows, horizontal sliders, and fiberglass doors for your art gallery. As everyone who is anyone knows, we offer the finest quality wood, vinyl, aluminum, steel, and fiberglass composite windows and doors you can find in the US of A. As you also know, our customer service representatives are ready to assist you 24/7 (and more!) with any installation or maintenance needs you may have (even if it’s your responsibility or fault, I might add). After doing so much for an important customer such as you, we have a small favor to ask of you, which we’re sure you will not deny us. We just hired some new engineers who will join our manufacturing division to continue to make the fine products that we make. Unfortunately, they have never seen how our finished products look outside or inside actual homes or offices. (On a personal note, I confess I don’t know what they can learn from one visit to a home or an office.) Our VP (Manufacturing), an asset to All-Weather, says that we should send these engineers out on a field visit. And he should know, shouldn’t he, being the VP and all? That is why I’m writing to you (the pleasure is mine, though). These fresh minds need exposure to actual conditions in actual markets. We think that if they visit your art gallery, they will see how our products are helping you get results your art gallery could never dream of before. If you don’t believe me, take a

Part 1

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

peek inside your exhibits room, whose space seems to have expanded thanks to our bow window that you have installed. I myself remember what a cramped-looking room it was before. No, I’m not asking you to share your admission fees with us, though free exhibition tickets wouldn’t hurt (I’m kidding, sir). Also, you should perhaps buy more windows and doors from us (and attract more visitors as a result!). Also, don’t forget to mention us favorably to your patrons. Oh, and by the way, will you please let us know the day and time suitable to you when we might send those engineers to your art gallery? Our orientation program begins in three weeks time. Looking forward to your prompt acceptance of our request (with or without free exhibition tickets). Sincerely, Li

Li was trying for a breezy tone that he thought appropriate for a young art gallery owner but obviously went overboard. Based on your reading of Chapter 3, complete the following tasks: ■ List problems in Li’s draft. ■ Prepare another list of changes that would improve the draft. Be specific in your suggestions. For instance, it’s insufficient to say “more you-attitude”

■ ■

or “more politeness.” Point to places in the draft where these strategies might be useful. Also, rephrase relevant sentences or paragraphs for more you-attitude or more politeness, whichever is the case. What is the primary purpose of the letter? The secondary purpose? Revise the draft.

Notes 1. Frances Frei and Anne Morriss, Uncommon Service: How to Win by Putting Customers at the Core of Your Business (Boston: Harvard Business Review Press, 2012), 1. 2. “Amazon Investor Relations,” Amazon.com, May 6, 2013, http://phx.corporate-ir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c 5 97664 &p5irol-irhome; and “Video from Jeff Bezos about Amazon and Zappos,” YouTube video, July 22, 2009, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v5-hxX_Q5CnaA. 3. Aaron Pressman, “When Service Means Survival,” Businessweek, March 2, 2009, 62. 4. John A. Byrne, “How to Lead Now: Getting Extraordinary Performance When You Can’t Pay for It,” Fast Company, August 2003, 65. 5. Zeynep Ton, “Why ‘Good Jobs’ Are Good for Retailers,” Harvard Business Review 90, no. 1–2 (January–February 2012): 125–31. 6. Pino G. Audia, “Train Your People to Take Others’ Perspectives,” Harvard Business Review 90, no. 10 (November 2012): 28. 7. Daniel H. Pink, A Whole New Mind: Why Right-Brainers Will Rule the Future (New York: Riverhead Books, 2006), 165. 8. Annette N. Shelby and N. Lamar Reinsch, “Positive Emphasis and You-Attitude: An Empirical Study,” Journal of Business Communication 32, no. 4 (1995): 303–27. 9. Martin E. P. Seligman, Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life, 2nd ed. (New York: Pocket Books, 1998), 96–107.

10. Mark A. Sherman, “Adjectival Negation and Comprehension of Multiply Negated Sentences,” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 15 (1976):143–57. 11. Jeffrey Zaslow, “In Praise of Less Praise,” Wall Street Journal, May 3, 2007, D1. 12. “The Happiness Factor,” Harvard Business Review 90, no. 1–2 (January–February 2012): 77. 13. “How Happy Are You? That Could Be Key to Measuring Economic Progress,” NJ.com, August 7, 2012, http://www .nj.com/news/index.ssf/2012/08/how_happy_are_you_ that_could_b.html. 14. Gretchen Spreitzer and Christine Porath, “Creating Sustainable Performance: If You Give Your Employees the Chance to Learn and Grow, They’ll Thrive—and So Will Your Organization,” Harvard Business Review 90, no. 1–2 (January–February 2012): 94. 15. Shawn Achor, “Positive Intelligence: Three Ways Individuals Can Cultivate Their Own Sense of Well-Being and Set Themselves Up To Succeed,” Harvard Business Review 90, no. 1–2 (January–February 2012): 102. 16. Ibid. 17. Spreitzer and Porath, “Creating Sustainable Performance,” 93. 18. Clayton M. Christensen, James Allworth, and Karen Dillon, How Will You Measure Your Life? (New York: Harper Business, 2012), 34. 19. Achor, “Positive Intelligence,” 100–02.

Chapter 3

20. Matthew Killingsworth, “The Future of Happiness Research,” Harvard Business Review 90, no. 1–2 (January– February 2012): 89. 21. Stephen C. Dillard, “Litigation Nation,” Wall Street Journal, November 25, 2006, A9. 22. Margaret Baker Graham and Carol David, “Power and Politeness: Administrative Writing in an ‘Organized Anarchy,’” Journal of Business and Technical Communication 10, no. 1 (1996): 5–27. 23. Robert Hurley, “Trust Me,” Wall Street Journal, October 24, 2011, R4. 24. Jessica Holzer and Greg Bensinger, “SEC Embraces Social Media: New Way to Make Disclosures Gets Go-Ahead if Investors Are Told Where to Look,” Wall Street Journal, April 3, 2013, A1. 25. Danielle Sacks, “Can You Hear Me Now?: The Art of Dialogue,” Fast Company, February 2013, 37–43. 26. Ibid. 27. Bruce Horovitz, “Bacon Mouthwash? April Fools’ Marketing Jokes Go Viral,” USA Today, April 1, 2013, http:// www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2013/04/01/ april-fools-day-pranks-scope-virgin-atlantic-ikea/2042451/. 28. Ibid. 29. “Women’s History Month: March 2013,” U.S. Census Bureau Newsroom, February 7, 2013, http://www.census .gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_ special_editions/cb13-ff04.html; “2010 Census Shows

30. 31.

32.

33. 34.

35.

Building Goodwill

America’s Diversity,” U.S. Census Bureau Newsroom, March 24, 2011, http://www.census.gov/2010census/ news/releases/operations/cb11-cn125.html; “Rise of Latino Population Blurs US Racial Lines,” Associated Press, May 17, 2013, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story .php?storyId5174546756; and “Older Americans Month: May 2013,” U.S. Census Bureau Newsroom, March 7, 2013, http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/ facts_for_features_special_editions/cb13-ff07.html. Laura Stevens, “German CEO’s Remark on Women Draws Fire,” Wall Street Journal, February 8, 2011, A9. Frank Newport, “Black or African American?” Gallup, September 28, 2007, http://www.gallup.com/ poll/28816/black-african-american.aspx. “20th Anniversary of Americans with Disabilities Act: July 26,” U.S. Census Bureau Newsroom, May 26, 2010, http:// www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_ for_features_special_editions/cb10-ff13.html. Clark Ansberry, “Erasing a Hurtful Label from the Books,” Wall Street Journal, November 30, 2010, A6. Ann Oldenburg, “‘SI’ Swimsuit Issue Courts Controversy,” USA Today, February 14, 2013, http://www.usatoday .com/story/life/people/2013/02/14/sports-illustratedkate-upton-swimsuit-prop-controversy/1920311/. Marie Beaudette, “Study: Credit Card Offers Flood OnceBankrupt Consumers,” Des Moines Register, August 10, 2007, 6D.

Navigating the Business Communication Environment

Chapter Outline Ethics Corporate Culture Interpersonal Communication ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Listening Conversational Style Nonverbal Communication Etiquette Networking

Time Management ■ ■

Techniques Multitasking

Trends in Business Communication ■ ■

Data Security Electronic Privacy

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Customer Service Work/Family Balance Environmental Concern Globalization and Outsourcing Diversity Teamwork Job Flexibility Innovation and Entrepreneurship Big Data Rapid Rate of Change

Summary by Learning Objectives

NEWSWORTHY COMMUNICATION Creating a Fresh Environment

he nonverbal communication in a business environment affects what people think and do, even in grocery stores. Traditionally, grocery stores have been arranged around the typical person’s shopping list, with quickly bought items in the front of the store, produce on the side, and meat and dairy in the back. But as more consumers seek fresh and organic items, grocery stores are changing their organizational strategies. One major change is including packaged goods in the produce

section. Researchers have found that when items such as boxed pasta or bottled juice are on the same shelves as fresh fruits and vegetables, consumers believe those items are fresher and higher in quality. Grocery stores are building on the “halo effect” of fresh produce by making produce sections larger, including more packaged items with the produce, and redesigning the produce sections to be more appealing to customers. Some food companies, such as Kraft Foods, are pushing retailers

to change other parts of the stores, as well. Kraft believes items such as cheese and milk should be closer to the produce to communicate that those items are also farm fresh. The design and arrangement of products in grocery stores can have a huge impact on consumers’ perceptions and their purchasing decisions. Creating the right business environment takes time and attention to both verbal and nonverbal forms of communication.

Source: Sarah Nassauer, “A Food Fight in the Produce Aisle,” Wall Street Journal, October 20, 2011, D1.

Learning Objectives

Warren Buffett on Ethics In a letter to Berkshire Hathaway directors, Chairman and CEO Warren Buffett says this about ethics: “We must continue to measure every act against not only what is legal but also what we would be happy to have written about on the front page of a national newspaper in an article written by an unfriendly but intelligent reporter. “Sometimes your associates will say, ‘Everybody else is doing it.’ This rationale is almost always a bad one if it is the main justification for a business action. It is totally unacceptable when evaluating a moral decision. Whenever somebody offers that phrase as a rationale, in effect they are saying that they can’t come up with a good reason. If anyone offers this explanation, tell them to try using it with a reporter or a judge and see how far it gets them. “. . . It’s very likely that if a given course of action evokes hesitation per se, it’s too close to the line and should be abandoned. There’s plenty of money to be made in the center of the court. If it’s questionable whether some action is close to the line, just assume it is outside and forget it.” Quoted from Richard. J. Connors, ed., Warren Buffett on Business: Principles from the Sage of Omaha (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010), 210. The material is copyrighted and used with permission of the author.

After studying this chapter, you will know LO 4-1

Why ethics is so important in business communication.

LO 4-2

How corporate culture impacts the business environment.

LO 4-3

Why interpersonal communication is important.

LO 4-4

How to use your time more efficiently.

LO 4-5

What the trends in business communication are.

n addition to adapting to audiences and building goodwill, business communications are heavily influenced by the environments in which they are created and interpreted. Part of this environment is shaped by national culture, such as the growing concern about business ethics, and part is shaped by corporate culture. Part is shaped by individual behaviors, such as those involved in interpersonal communication. A final part is shaped by widespread trends, such as globalization or the green movement. Technology and information overload, which are perhaps the largest of these trends, are discussed extensively in Chapter 9, along with effective ways to deal with them.

Ethics

LO 4-1

With the official recognition of a serious worldwide recession, along with the subprime mortgage debacle, ethics concerns have become a major part of the business environment. Financial giants such as AIG, Bear Stearns, Lehman Brothers, Merrill Lynch, Wachovia, and Washington Mutual had to be bailed out or went bankrupt. Banks, corporate officials, and rating agencies all were accused of unethical behavior. The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) charged Goldman Sachs with fraud on securities linked to subprime mortgages; the firm settled out of court for more than half a billion dollars. In a much larger lawsuit, Credit Suisse was sued for $11.2 billion in losses from bundled mortgage securities. According to New York’s attorney general, Credit Suisse “kept its investors in the dark about the inadequacy of its review procedures and defects in the loans,” a major lapse in business communication. The bank was also accused of misrepresenting information in its SEC filings regarding when problem loans would be repurchased.1 Ethics breaches have cost other organizations millions and even billions of dollars. ■

GlaxoSmithKline incurred a $3 billion fine for failing to report drug safety data. Previously the company had pleaded guilty to charges that it knowingly sold adulterated drugs, including the antidepressant Paxil, and paid fines of $750 million.2

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Visa and MasterCard, plus the banks that issue their credit cards, settled for $7.25 billion over fixing card fees.3

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British bank HSBC set aside more than $2 billion to cover fines and lawsuits in a money laundering case.4

Chapter 4 ■

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Navigating the Business Communication Environment

Siemens settled with the government for $800 million in a bribery case; the document review alone cost an additional $100 million.5 In 2013, the credit-rating agency Standard & Poor’s was sued by the U.S. government for $5 billion; the suit alleged the agency inflated credit ratings for bundled mortgage securities.6

Billionaires fell as well. Bernie Madoff was sentenced to prison in what may have been the biggest Ponzi scheme in history, one that defrauded thousands of investors of billions of dollars. Hedge-fund manager Raj Rajaratnam was convicted of securities fraud and conspiracy in the biggest insider-trading case to that time.7 The Ethics Resource Center, America’s oldest nonprofit organization devoted to ethical practice, reported in its 2011 National Business Ethics Survey, that 45% of employees surveyed personally witnessed unethical or illegal behavior; 35% of those witnesses did not report it. The most frequent misconducts were misuse of company time, abusive behavior, lying, company resource abuse, violating company Internet use policies, discrimination, conflicts of interest, inappropriate social networking, health or safety violations, stealing, falsifying time reports, benefits violations, and sexual harassment.8 Some common reasons for not reporting ethical misconduct are the following: it’s standard practice here, it’s not a big deal, it’s not my responsibility (a particularly common reason for junior employees), and I want to be loyal to my colleagues/manager/company (stated negatively, this reason is “fear of consequences”).9 On the other side of the coin, positive ethical efforts are also getting attention. The United Nations Global Compact, “the world’s largest corporate citizenship and sustainability initiative,” focuses on human rights, labor, environment, and anticorruption measures. More than 7,000 businesses in 145 countries participate.10 The Clinton Global Initiative has brought together 150 heads of state, 20 Nobel laureates, and hundreds of CEOs, who collectively have committed $63 billion. This money has already impacted the lives of 400 million people in 180 countries.11 Other organizations and people also promote ethical efforts: ■

The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation received new attention when Warren Buffett announced his transfer of billions of dollars to it. The three philanthropists have attracted still more attention with their efforts to convince other billionaires to pledge the majority of their wealth to philanthropy. The list of those who have made the pledge is posted at givingpledge.org; it included 105 pledgers in Spring 2013.

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Google has created Google.org “to help address global challenges.” It focuses on problems where Google’s “core capabilities” are most useful, such as creating the Google Person Finder, to help people connect after major disasters, and the Flu and Dengue Trends, which provide early warning of possible outbreaks.12

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Robin Hood, a venture philanthropy, “robs” the rich (its board members cover all costs, so 100% of money donated goes to fund programs) to help the poor in New York City. In the past 20 years, it has distributed over $1 billion.13

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Merck provides its drug Mectizan “free of charge and in perpetuity” to treat river blindness worldwide. Its donations reach more than 60 million people a year in 33 countries.14

Egg-semplary Communication Ethics? Scientists at a university diagnostic lab faced an ethical communication problem. Four months before a large salmonella outbreak involving eggs, they were aware that hens at a huge egg-producing business were infected with salmonella. They reported their findings to the producer requesting the testing. However, because of the lab’s confidentiality policy, they were unable to reportthe presence of salmonella to authorities (salmonella was not a disease that legally had to be reported). What followed was the sickening of 60,000 consumers and the recall of 550 million eggs. Scientists who worked at the lab told the press later that owners would no longer get their animals tested if the lab lacked the confidentiality policy. They noted that the lab’s policy was similar to laboratory/patient policies in human medicine. Under the confidentiality agreements between the lab and people whose animals were tested, going to the authorities would have been unethical and probably would have resulted in firings. What would you have done in their situation? Adapted from Hannah Furfaro, “ISU Egg Researchers Discuss Their Role in 2010 Recall,” Ames Tribune, June 6, 2012, A1; and Ryan J. Foley, “ISU Lab Warned of Salmonella in Eggs,” Ames Tribune, June 5, 2012, A1.

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Figure 4.1

Business Ethics Resources on the Web

http://www.ethicsweb.ca/resources/business http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/focusareas/business/ http://www.businessethicsresources.com/ http://www.ethics.org http://www.ethicsweb.ca/resources/business/codes.html

While many tech companies invest in computers and computer support for schools, in 1994 IBM launched a new program, Reinventing Education, in the hopes of bringing about some systemic improvements in pedagogy. IBM has invested over $75 million in this philanthropic endeavor. In addition to the schools involved, IBM profited from the program as well; 45 patents or patent applications resulted from the work as IBM learned new ways to apply technology to tackle huge, complex issues.15 Business ethics includes far more than corporate greed, international pacts, and philanthropy, of course. Much of business ethics involves routine practices, and many of these practices involve communication. How can we make our contracts with our clients and suppliers easier to understand? How can we best communicate with our employees? How much should our hospital disclose about infection rates? Many basic, daily communication decisions involve an ethics component. Am I including all the information my audience needs? Am I expressing it in ways they will understand? Am I putting it in a format that helps my audience grasp it quickly? Am I including information for all segments of my audience? Am I taking information from other sources accurately? Am I acknowledging my sources? Figure 4.1 lists some web resources that deal with business ethics. Figure4.2 elaborates on ethical components of communication. As it suggests, language, graphics, and document design—basic parts of any business document—can be ethical or manipulative. Persuading and gaining compliance—activities at the heart of business and organizational life—can be done with respect or contempt for customers, co-workers, and subordinates. In these days of instant communication, you, like the organization in which you work, must always act in an ethical manner. Consequences for not doing so are becoming more common as disgruntled colleagues/employees now have ample means for whistle-blowing. There are also positive reasons for ethical behavior. In addition to moral reasons, there are business ones. As the Ethics Resource Center notes, customers and employees are attracted to ethical businesses. Rosabeth Moss Kanter, a professor at Harvard Business School, argues in her book, SuperCorp: How Vanguard Companies Create Innovation, Profits, Growth, and Social Good, that companies desiring to do good have a competitive advantage. In fact, a benevolent viewpoint provides a wider view of society and thus awareness of new opportunities for growth and innovation by solving the problems of unmet needs. Many religions and philosophers have offered advice on how to be ethical. Some of the more familiar advice is the Golden Rule (do unto others as you would have them do unto you) and the utilitarian principle that an action should produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. Business leaders have also given advice. Warren Buffett has offered the newspaper criterion: how would you feel if your actions were on the front page of a national newspaper? (For more Buffett guidelines, see the sidebar on page 88.)

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Figure 4.2

Navigating the Business Communication Environment

Ethical Issues in Business Communications

Manner of conveying themessage

Qualities of the message

Larger organizational context of the message

• Is the language clear to the audience? Does it respect the audience?

• Is the message an ethical one that is honest and sensitive to all stakeholders?

• How does the organization treat its employees? How do employees treat each other?

• Do the words balance the organization’s right to present its best case with its responsibility to present its message honestly?

• Have interested parties been able to provide input?

• How sensitive is the organization to stakeholders such as the people who live near its factories, stores, or offices and to the general public?

• Do graphics help the audience understand? Or are graphics used to distract or confuse? • Does the design of the document make reading easy? Does document design attempt to make readers skip key points?

• Does the audience get all the information it needs to make a good decision or is information withheld? • Is information communicated so the audience can grasp it or are data “dumped” without any context? • Are the arguments logical? Are they supported with adequate evidence? • Are the emotional appeals used fairly? Do they supplement logic rather than substitute for it? • Does the organizational pattern lead the audience without undue manipulation?

• Does the organization support employees’ efforts to be honest, fair, and ethical? • Do the organization’s actions in making products, buying supplies, and marketing goods and services stand up to ethical scrutiny? • Is the organization a good corporate citizen, helpful rather than harmful to the community in which it exists? • Are the organization’s products or services a good use of scarce resources?

• Does the message use good sources? Are the sources used honestly? Are they documented?

Tony Hsieh, the founder and CEO of Zappos, offers this useful ethics guideline: As a guiding principle in life for anything I do, I try to ask myself, What would happen if everyone in the world acted in the same way? What would the world look like? What would the net effect be on the overall happiness in the world? [Hsieh’s italics] This thought experiment has been useful to me when thinking about whether to share how we do things at Zappos, or whether to get upset at the waitress who accidentally got my order wrong, or whether to hold the door open for a stranger who’s a slightly inconvenient distance away. The same questions are just as important for deciding what not to do, even if not doing anything is the default choice.16

A widely used system by philosopher Michael Davis for ethical decision making offers these tests for options in an ethical dilemma: ■

Harm: Does this option do less harm than any other?

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Publicity: Would I want my choice of this option published in the news?

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Defensibility: Could I defend my choice of this option before a congressional committee or a committee of my peers?

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Self-application: Would I still think this choice good if I were one of those adversely affected by it?

Rule 34: Don’t Plagiarize “Do not plagiarize” should have been included in Unwritten Rules of Management, the book by William Swanson, CEO of Raytheon. In 2004, Raytheon gave employees free copies of the book, which contained 33 rules. The book quickly became widely read by professionals and executives because of its humorous approach. However, an engineer at HewlettPackard discovered that 13 of the rules had been previously published by W. J. King in his 1944 bestseller, The Unwritten Laws of Engineering. Further findings uncovered that the additional rules were obtained from Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld and humor editorial writer Dave Barry. Swanson apologized for the mistake, which, he states, began when he asked employees to create a presentation from a file. The presentation was a great hit, which led to the creation of the 33 rules— one for each year he worked for Raytheon. Unfortunately, the rules were not original and the sources were not properlycited. How can you avoid plagiarism? Adapted from Lisa Takeuchi Cullen, “Rule No. 1: Don’t Copy,” Time, May 15, 2006, 41.

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Colleagues: What do my colleagues say when I suggest this option as my solution?

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Profession: What might my profession’s governing body or ethics committee say about this option?

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Organization: What does the company’s ethics officer or legal counsel say about this option?17

Corporate Culture

LO 4-2

Another strong influence on the business environment is corporate culture (see Chapter 2 for ways to analyze corporate culture). Corporate cultures vary widely. They range from formal—with individual offices, jackets, and hierarchical lines of command—to informal—with open office space, casual attire, and individually empowered workers. Characteristics of popular corporate cultures include flexible work arrangements, profit sharing, information sharing, good training, health insurance, and wellness programs. Both large and small companies get positive publicity for their corporate cultures. ■

Google is known for company gyms, well-stocked snack rooms, restaurants, and casual work attire.

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Ogilvy & Mather’s Canton, China, office has a carnival theme to remind employees of the company’s mission to “stay fresh.” The décor includes a fullsize carousel, carousel horses throughout the office, circus lights, and a fake Ferris wheel, whose carriages serve as small meeting rooms.18

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Dealer.com offers subsidized meals at its café, with organic and locally grown food, wellness seminars on exercise and stress management, chair massages, bike rentals, tennis and basketball courts, fitness center, and half-price ski passes. The company supports its sports teams, including softball, volleyball, soccer, bowling, and dragon-boat racing.19

Two companies in the same field may have very different cultures. When Procter & Gamble bought Gillette, the company expected a smooth marriage between the world’s number one toothbrush, Oral-B, and the world’s number two toothpaste, Crest. But cultural differences caused problems. Gillette employees found P&G’s culture rigid, its decision making slow. Gillette employees also had to learn P&G’s famous acronyms, such as CIB (consumer is boss) and FMOT (first moment of truth, when consumers notice the product). P&G people sent Some employees use exercise balls as desk chairs. The balls memos, Gillette people require employees to use core muscles to maintain posture. called meetings.20 Employees say they are also fun because they can bounce.

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Wise companies also use effective corporate cultures to retain hourly workers. Hotels lose two-thirds of their hourly workers annually, according to hotel survey firm Market Metrix. Each departure costs midrange hotels about $5,000 in lost productivity, recruiting, and training. But Joie de Vivre Hospitality has a turnover rate that is half the industry average. The CEO attributes the low rate to a corporate culture that listens to employees, enacts some of their suggestions, and tries to make work fun. In addition to awards, the company sponsors parties, annual retreats, and regularly scheduled dinners. It also offers free classes on subjects such as Microsoft Excel and English as a secondlanguage.21 Corporate culture is at the heart of the customer service focus at Zappos, the Internet footwear retailer. The company nurtures a touch of weirdness to make work more fun. That same touch of weirdness also encourages innovation. To increase serendipitous interactions, all employees enter and exit through the reception area, not other building doors. Logging in to the company computer requires completing the short multiple-choice test to name the randomly selected employee whose picture is displayed.22 Tours of corporate offices are always unique, because teams are always changing their décor: You might find a popcorn machine or a coffee machine dressed up as a robot in our lobby. As you passed through different departments, you might find an aisle of cowbells . . ., a makeshift bowling alley . . ., employees dressed up as pirates, employees karaokeing, a nap room, a petting zoo, or a hot dog social. You might see a parade pass by because one of our departments decided that it was the perfect day to celebrate Oktoberfest.23

Interpersonal Communication

LO 4-3

Within the corporate environment, interpersonal communication skill is one major reason some people are more likely to be successful than others. Much important communication occurs in hallways, at the coffee machine, and in break rooms. Successful professionals communicate well with different categories of people—co-workers, bosses, clients—in a variety of settings. To do so, they cultivate skills in diverse areas such as listening, conversation, nonverbal communication, and networking. They also practice skills in conflict resolution and teamwork (see Chapter 8 for a discussion of these latter twoskills). These skills are part of what Daniel Goleman has widely popularized as emotional intelligence in his books on the subject. He presents much evidence to show that while intelligence and expertise are necessary to climb to the top in organizations, once at the top, emotional intelligence, not IQ, predicts the star leaders.24

Listening Listening is crucial to building trust. However, listening on the job may be more difficult than listening in class. Many classroom lectures are well organized, with signposts and repetition of key points to help hearers follow. But conversations usually wander. A key point about when a report is due may be sandwiched among statements about other due dates for other projects. In a classroom you’re listening primarily for information. In interchanges with co-workers, you need to listen for feelings, too. Feelings such as being rejected or overworked need to be dealt with as they arise. But you can’t deal with a feeling unless you are aware of it. Listening errors also can result from being distracted by your own emotional response, especially when the topic is controversial. Listeners have to be aware of their emotional responses so they can clarify the speaker’s intent

Thoughtful Perks As part of their corporate culture, some companies have thoughtful perks: ■

On-site day care and afterschool care.

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Fitness center and pool.

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On-site laundry pickup and delivery.

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Free lunches and snacks.

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Unlimited paid vacation.

Worker-cise In a new furniture trend in corporate culture, many new workstations have been designed to help employees exercise on the job. Some popular new products are workstations that are connected to a treadmill, allowing people to walk or run while working, and giant balls that employees must balance on while sitting at theirdesks. However, “active workstations” may be hurting productivity and may even cause issues of hygiene, etiquette, and liability. A study by the Mayo Clinic showed that medical transcriptionists slowed down by 16% if they typed while walking instead of sitting. A similar study by the University of Tennessee found that fine motor skills decreased by 11% while walking on a treadmill. The University of Kentucky put together rules for using active workstations. The rules suggested that users wear proper shoes to walk in, walk slowly (less than 2 miles per hour), muffle the noise of the treadmills, practice good hygiene, and keep a traditional desk andchair. Adapted from Jen Wieczner, “Falling Down on the Job?” Wall Street Journal, January 29, 2013, D1–D2.

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and also allow time for cooling off, if necessary. A you-attitude is as helpful for listening as it is for writing. Listening is more effective if the listener focuses more on understanding than on formulating a reply. Thinking about your own response too often causes you to miss important information. Some listening errors also happen because the hearer wasn’t paying enough attention to a key point. Be aware of points you need to know and listen for them. Inattention and emotions can cause listeners to misinterpret a speaker. To reduce listening errors caused by misinterpretation, ■

Paraphrase what the speaker has said, giving him or her a chance to correct your understanding.

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At the end of the conversation, check your understanding with the other person. Especially check who does what next.

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After the conversation, write down key points that affect deadlines or how work will be evaluated. Sometimes these key points need to be confirmed in an e-mail.

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Don’t ignore instructions you think are unnecessary. Before you do something else, check with the order giver to see if there is a reason for the instruction.

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Consider the other person’s background and experiences. Why is this point important to the speaker? What might he or she mean by it?

Listening to people is an indication that you’re taking them seriously. Acknowledgment responses—nods, uh huhs, smiles, frowns—help carry the message that you’re listening. However, remember that listening responses vary in different cultures. In active listening, receivers actively demonstrate that they’ve understood a speaker by feeding back the literal meaning, the emotional content, or both. These strategies create active responses: ■

Paraphrase the content. Feed back the meaning in your own words.

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Identify the feelings you think you hear.

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Ask for information or clarification.

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Offer to help. (“What can I do to help?”)

When dealing with problems, instead of acknowledging what the other person says, many of us immediately respond in a way that analyzes or attempts to solve or dismiss the problem. People with problems need first of all to know that we hear that they’re having a rough time. Figure4.3 lists some responses that block communication.25 Ordering and threatening both tell the other person that the speaker doesn’t want to hear what he or she has to say. Preaching attacks the other person. Minimizing the problem suggests the other person’s concern is misplaced. It can even attack the other person’s competency by suggesting that other people are coping just fine with bigger problems. Even advising shuts off discussion. Giving a quick answer minimizes the pain the person feels and puts him or her down for not seeing (what is to us) the obvious answer. Even if it is a good answer from an objective point of view, the other person may not be ready to hear it. And too often, the off-the-top-of-thehead solution doesn’t address the real problem.

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Figure 4.3

Navigating the Business Communication Environment

Blocking Responses versus Active Listening

Blocking response

Possible active response

Ordering, threatening

Paraphrasing content

“I don’t care how you do it. Just get that report on my desk by Friday.”

“You’re saying that you don’t have time to finish the report by Friday.”

Preaching, criticizing

Mirroring feelings

“You should know better than to air the department’s problems in a general meeting.”

“It sounds like the department’s problems really bother you.”

Minimizing the problem

Asking for information or clarification

“You think that’s bad. You should see what I have to do this week.”

“What parts of the problem seem most difficult to solve?”

Advising

Offering to help solve the problem together

“Well, why don’t you try listing everything you have to do and seeing which items are most important?”

“Is there anything I could do that would help?”

Active listening takes time and energy. Even people who are skilled active listeners can’t do it all the time. Active listening can reduce the conflict that results from miscommunication, but it alone cannot reduce the conflict that comes when two people want apparently inconsistent things or when one person wants to change someone else.

Conversational Style Deborah Tannen, a linguist who specializes in gender discourse, uses the term conversational style to denote our conversational patterns and the meaning we give to them: the way we show interest, politeness, appropriateness.26 Your answers to the following questions help reveal your own conversational style: ■

How long a pause tells you that it’s your turn to speak?

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Do you see interruption as rude? Or do you say things while other people are still talking to show that you’re interested and to encourage them to say more?

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Do you show interest by asking lots of questions? Or do you see questions as intrusive and wait for people to volunteer whatever they have to say?

Tannen concludes that the following features characterize her own conversational style: Fast rate of speech. Fast rate of turn-taking. Persistence—if a turn is not acknowledged, try again. Preference for personal stories. Tolerance of, preference for simultaneous speech. Abrupt topic shifting. Different conversational styles are not necessarily good or bad, but people with different conversational styles may feel uncomfortable without knowing why. A subordinate who talks quickly may be frustrated by a boss who speaks

Serendipitous Interpersonal Communication Some organizations are thinking of new ways to get their employees to meet each other. They hope these chance encounters will encourage creativity, collaboration, and innovation. Some companies use architectural features, such as crowded break rooms that cause employees to literally bump into each other or centralized bathrooms. Others use creative features, like trivia games in elevators, to get employees talking to each other. Efforts don’t have to cost a lot of money. National Public Radio holds “Serendipity Days,” during which employees—from departments as disparate as HR, news, and engineering—meet to think of new projects. At marketing agency CTP, employees swap offices and desks in the summer to foster crossdepartmental interactions. Adapted from Rachel Emma Silverman, “The Science of Serendipity in the Workplace,” Wall Street Journal, May 1, 2013, B6.

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Interpersonal Skills for Doctors The risk of being sued for medical malpractice lies not so much with training, credentials, or even the number of mistakes made. Rather, it depends on doctors’ interpersonal skills. Again and again, patients in malpractice suits say they were rushed, ignored, or treated like objects. A study of surgeons showed that those who had never beensued ■

Made orienting comments at visits, so patients knew what was going to happen and when it was best to ask questions.

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Practiced active listening (“Tell me more about that”).

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Laughed and were funny during visits.

The difference was all in how they talked to their patients; there was no difference in amount or quality of information.

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

slowly. People who talk more slowly may feel shut out of a conversation with people who talk more quickly. Someone who has learned to make requests directly (“Please pass the salt”) may be annoyed by someone who uses indirect requests (“This casserole needs some salt”). In the workplace, conflicts may arise because of differences in conversational style. If people see direct questions as criticizing or accusing, they may see an ordinary question (“Will that report be ready Friday?”) as a criticism of their progress. One supervisor might mean the question simply as a request for information. Another supervisor might use the question to mean “I want that report Friday.” Researchers Daniel N. Maltz and Ruth A. Borker believe that differences in conversational style (see Figure4.4) may be responsible for the miscommunication that often occurs in male–female conversations. Certainly conversational style is not the same for all men and for all women, but research has found several common patterns in the U.S. cultures studied.27 For example, researchers have found that women are much more likely to nod and to say yes or mm hmm than men are.28 Maltz and Borker hypothesize that to women, these symbols mean simply “I’m listening; go on.” Men, on the other hand, may decode these symbols as “I agree” or at least “I follow what you’re saying so far.” A man who receives nods and mms from a woman may feel that she is inconsistent and unpredictable if she then disagrees with him. A woman may feel that a man who doesn’t provide any feedback isn’t listening to her. Research has also shown that in the United States men tend to interrupt more than women; women tend to wait for a pause in the discussion before speaking. When former Secretary of State Madeleine Albright was asked to give advice to professional women hoping to rise in the ranks, she replied, “Learn to interrupt.”29

Adapted from Malcolm Gladwell, Blink: The Power of Thinking without Thinking (New York: Back Bay Books, 2007), 40–43.

Figure 4.4

Different Conversational Styles Debating

Relating

Interpretation of questions

See questions as requests for information.

See questions as way to show interest and keep a conversation flowing.

Relation of new comment to what last speaker said

Do not require new comment to relate explicitly to last speaker’s comment. Ignoring previous comment is one strategy for taking control.

Expect new comments to acknowledge the last speaker’s comment and relate directly to it.

View of interrupting

See interrupting as one way to organize the flow of conversation.

See interrupting as disruptive to a conversation.

View of indirectness

Appreciate directness

See indirectness as maintaining camaraderie, as giving other people choice in a conversation.

Definition of topics

Tend to announce topics directly. Interpret statements about side issues as effort to change the topic.

Tend to define topics gradually, progressively. Interpret statements about side issues as effort to shape, expand, or limit the topic.

Response to someone who shares a problem

Offer advice, solutions.

Offer solidarity, reassurance. Share troubles to establish sense of community.

Source: Based on Deborah Tannen, That’s Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships, Rei Rep ed. (New York: Harper Perennial, 2011).

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Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication—communication that doesn’t use words—occurs all the time. Smiles, frowns, office décor, who sits where at a meeting, the size of an office, how long someone keeps a visitor waiting—all these communicate pleasure or anger, friendliness or distance, power and status. Researchers have begun to study a category of nonverbal communication called social signals—tone of voice, gestures, proximity to others, facial expressions—as keys to business success. Researchers can study these signals in individuals and then predict accurately who will win raises or business plan contests. The more successful people are more energetic and positive. They do talk more, but they also listen more, drawing other people out.30 Most of the time we are no more conscious of interpreting nonverbal signals than we are conscious of breathing. Yet nonverbal signals can be misinterpreted just as easily as can verbal symbols (words). And the misunderstandings can be harder to clear up because people may not be aware of the nonverbal cues that led them to assume they aren’t liked, respected, or approved. Learning about nonverbal language can help us project the image we want to present and make us more aware of the signals we are interpreting. However, even within a single culture, a nonverbal symbol may have more than one meaning. In the business world, two sets of nonverbal signals are particularly important: spatial cues and body language.

Spatial Cues In the United States, the size, placement, and privacy of one’s office connotes status. Large corner offices have the highest status. An individual office with a door that closes connotes more status than a desk in a common area. Windows also may matter. An office with a window may connote more status than one without. People who don’t know each other well may feel more comfortable with each other if a piece of furniture separates them. For example, a group may work better sitting around a table than just sitting in a circle. Desks can be used as barricades to protect oneself from other people.

(a) (left) “THE REAL THING: A real smile involves the whole face, not just the mouth. While muscles pull the corners of the mouth up (1), an involuntary nerve causes the upper eyefold (2) to relax.”(b) (right) “THE SOCIAL SMILE: When faking, the lips are pulled straight across (3). Though this creates cheek folds (4) similar to those of a real smile, the lack of eye crinkles (5) is a dead giveaway.” Quoted from Andy Raskin, “A Face Any Business Can Trust,” Business 2.0 4, no. 11 (December 2003): 60.

Liar Detection Although not infallible, these are signs of lying: Body language: Physical cues such as sweating and fidgeting may be telling. Details: False stories often lack details. Pushing for details increases chances the liar may slip up. Unpleasantness: Liars are less cooperative, pleasant, and friendly than truth tellers. They also make more negative statements and complaints. Eye contact: Failure to make eye contact is often a sign of lying. Stress signs: Dilated pupils and a rise in voice pitch may be present. Pauses: Most liars will have pauses in their stories as they make them up. Inconsistencies: Ask suspected liars to repeat their stories; listen for inconsistencies. Adapted from Elisabeth Eaves, “Ten Ways to Tell if Someone Is Lying to You,” Forbes, July 22, 2010, http://www.forbes.com/ 2006/11/02/tech-cx_ee_ technology_liar_slide.html.

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Authoritative Body Language Carol Kinsey Goman, author of The Silent Language of Leaders: How Body Language Can Help—or Hurt— How You Lead, offers these tips to increase your image of authority: ■

Keep your head straight up. Head tilts show concern or interest for individuals, but may be processed as submission signals in power situations.

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Expand your space. Stand tall, spread your elbows a little, widen your stance, and spread your materials on the table at the next meeting. Authority is demonstrated through height and space.

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Use the tonal arc, in which your voice rises in pitch through a sentence but drops back down at the end. Ending on a higher pitch often indicates uncertainty or a need for approval.

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Look serious when the subject is serious. Smiles are frequently inappropriate in power situations.

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Do not nod to express listening or engagement; nodding undercuts authority.

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Minimize movements, especially gestures.

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Have a firm handshake.

The Building Blocks of Effective Messages

Body Language Our body language communicates to other people much about our feelings. Our facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, posture, and body positions all telegraph information about us. In the United States, open body positions include leaning forward with uncrossed arms and legs, with the arms away from the body. Closed or defensive body positions include leaning back, sometimes with both hands behind the head, arms and legs crossed or close together, or hands in pockets. As the labels imply, open positions suggest that people are accepting and open to new ideas. Closed positions suggest that people are physically or psychologically uncomfortable, that they are defending themselves and shutting other people out. People who cross their arms or legs often claim that they do so only because the position is more comfortable. But notice your own body the next time you’re in a perfectly comfortable discussion with a good friend. You’ll probably find that you naturally assume open body positions. The fact that so many people in organizational settings adopt closed positions may indicate that many people feel at least slightly uncomfortable in school and on the job. Some nonverbal communications appear to be made and interpreted unconsciously by many people. Researchers at MIT are showing that when we get excited about something, we have more nervous energy. Another such signal is fluency, or consistency. Consistency in motions (such as in surgery) or tone (speech) tells us who is expert, or at least well practiced. Such signals are hard to fake, which may explain their influence.31 Body language is complicated by the fact that nonverbal signs may have more than one meaning. A frown may signal displeasure or concentration. A stiff posture that usually means your co-worker is upset may today just be a sign of sore back muscles. Our own body language can even influence us. Smiling, even when we don’t want to, can make us feel better about what we are doing. Uncrossing

Adapted from Carol Kinsey Goman, “10 Common Body Language Traps for Women in the Workplace,” On Leadership (blog), Washington Post, May 2, 2011, http://www.washingtonpost .com/blogs/on-leadership/ post/10-common-body-languagetraps-for-women-in-theworkplace/2011/03/03/ AFl0GFbF_blog.html.

Body language can give big clues about our attitudes.

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folded arms (a common sign of resistance) to accept a cup of coffee, business card, or paper copy of a document can make us less resistant to the other person. Standing tall or assuming an expansive posture can make us feel more confident.32 Misunderstandings are even more common when people communicate with people from other cultures or other countries. Knowing something about other cultures may help you realize that a subordinate who doesn’t meet your eye may be showing respect rather than dishonesty. But it’s impossible to memorize every meaning that every nonverbal sign has in every culture. And in a multicultural workforce, you may not know whether someone retains the meanings of his or her ancestors or has adopted the dominant U.S. meanings. The best solution is to ask for clarification.

Etiquette Some people falsely think that etiquette consists of a bunch of stuffy oldfashioned rules. They are wrong. Good manners mean treating people with respect. In the office that means respecting people’s space by not peering over their cubicle wall, not handling their stuff, and never borrowing anything from them without asking. In open offices it means lowering your voice on conversations and phone calls so the whole office doesn’t have to hear. It also means not sneaking up on people using headphones. In the break room, it means sharing limited spaces such as refrigerators, making a new pot of coffee when you take the last cup, and cleaning up your messes. Good manners include saying please, thank you, and you’re welcome. They include making customers feel welcome and standing up to greet newcomers. They include returning shared equipment promptly and filling the printer with paper when you empty it. For most people, the biggest etiquette breach in the workplace involves misuse of technology. Set your cell phone on vibrate. Refrain from texting during meetings. In fact, don’t multitask when you are engaged in any interpersonal communications. When you do so, you are sending a clear message to other people that they are not as important as your phone messages, e-mail, or websites. This restriction also applies when you are on the phone; most people can tell if you are multitasking.

Networking A much underappreciated skill in the business environment is networking, the ability to connect with many different kinds of people. Most of us can relate to the people in our immediate work group, although even there differences in ability to connect impact performance. But true networking is creating connections with still more people. It involves creating connections before they are needed, creating diverse connections in widely spread areas, knowing which people to turn to when you need additional expertise, knowing people outside the company. Good networkers know who will help them cut through red tape, who can find an emergency supplier, who will take on extra work in a crisis. Informal conversations, about yesterday’s game and Li’s photography exhibit as well as what’s happening at work, connect them with the grapevine, an informal source of company information. Participation in civic, school, religious, and professional organizations connects them to a larger environment. They attend conferences, trade shows, fund-raisers, and community events. They use social networking sites such as LinkedIn (see Chapter 9 for more on electronic networks).

Gossip Networking Although it has a tarnished reputation, gossip can benefit both individuals and organizations, research shows. Gossiping is a form of networking. According to Joe Labianca, a professor at the University of Kentucky’s Center for Research on Social Networks in Business, the more workers gossip, the better their understanding of the work environment and the higher their peers rate their influence. Gossip disseminates valuable information about workers, such as who doesn’t do their share or who is impossible to work with. And guess what? Managers gossip, too. In fact, they may have more “gossip partners” than nonmanagers. Adapted from Giuseppe Labianca, “It’s Not ‘Unprofessional’ to Gossip at Work,” Harvard Business Review 88, no. 9 (September 2010): 29.

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Networking becomes even more important as you climb the corporate ladder. Good managers interact with their employees continually, not just when they need something. They listen to lunchroom conversations; they chat with employees over coffee. Much research shows that networking is crucial to job success. In Emotional Intelligence, Daniel Goleman tells of research in a division at Bell Labs to determine what made the star performers in the division. Everyone in the division had a high academic IQ, which meant that IQ was not a good predictor of job productivity (although academic knowledge and IQ are good predictors of success on earlier career ladder rungs). But networking skill was a good predictor. The stars put effort into developing their network, and they cultivated relationships in that network before they were needed.33 Goleman identifies three different kinds of workplace networks: conversational (who talks to whom), expertise (who can be turned to for advice), and trust (who can be trusted with sensitive information such as gripes). Unsurprisingly, the stars of an organization are often heavily networked in all three varieties.34 Good networkers share certain interpersonal communication behaviors. ■

Use you-attitude to see things from the other person’s perspective.

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Actively seek ways to help other people.

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Adapt their behavior and attitude to the people around them.

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Subtly mirror the postures, behaviors, and emotional states of people near them.

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Share some personal and emotional information about themselves, a sharing that helps build trust.

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Capitalize on the benefits of physical proximity—trading some phone calls for actual office visits, attending both informal and formal gatherings.

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Understand the importance of connecting with people outside their own social and professional circles.

One study showed that people with these skills penetrated the center of their workplace network in just 18 months; people lacking in these skills took 13 years.35

Time Management

LO 4-4

As your work environment becomes more complex, with multiple networks, responsibilities, and projects, good time management becomes crucial. The ever-increasing number of messages that must be answered as well as the distractions and interruptions that are part of open-plan offices all add to time problems. Although much time management advice sounds like common sense, it is amazing the number of people who do not follow it.

Techniques Probably the most important time management technique is to prioritize the demands on your time, and make sure you spend the majority of your time on the most important demands. If your career success depends on producing reports, news articles, and press releases about company business, then that is what you need to spend the majority of your time doing.

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Urgent

Not Urgent

Important

Stephen Covey’s Time Management Matrix. Covey advises putting significant time into quadrant II.

I ACTIVITIES: Crises Pressing problems Deadline-driven projects

II ACTIVITIES: Prevention, PC activities Relationship building Recognizing new opportunities Planning, recreation

Not Important

Figure 4.5

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III ACTIVITIES: Interruptions, some calls Some mail, some reports Some meetings Proximate, pressing matters Popular activities

IV ACTIVITIES: Trivia, busy work Some mail Some phone calls Time wasters Pleasant activities

Source: Stephen R. Covey, The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People: Restoring the Character (New York: Free Press, 2004), 150–54. Reprinted with permission of the author.

Randy Pausch, in his highly popular video and book The Last Lecture, makes this point about prioritizing most eloquently. His lecture is a moving reminder to make time for friends and family. His colleagues noted that he would regularly tell his students they could always make more money later, but they could never make more time.36 In The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, a book which remained on the best-seller list for over two decades, Stephen Covey presents a useful time management matrix that sorts activities by urgency and importance (see Figure 4.5). Obviously we should focus our time on important, urgent activities, but Covey also advises putting significant time into quadrant II, important but nonurgent activities, which he calls the heart of effective management. Quadrant II activities include networking, planning, and preparing.37 Figure4.6 offers other common tips for time management. Figure 4.6

Time Management Tips

• Keep lists—both daily and long term. Prioritize items on your list. • Ask yourself where you want to be in three or five years and work accordingly. • Do large, important tasks first, and then fill in around them with smaller tasks. • Break large tasks into small ones. Remember that you do not always have to work sequentially. If you have been putting off a report because you cannot decide how to write its introduction, start with the conclusions or some other part that is easy for you to write. • Find blocks of time: Set your phone to voice mail, ignore e-mail, avoid the break room, move discretionary meetings. Put these blocks at your most productive time; save e-mail and meetings for less productive times. • Avoid time sinks: some people, long phone conversations, constant e-mail checks. • Decide at the end of today’s work session what you will do in tomorrow’s session, and set yourself up to do it. Find the necessary file; look up the specifications for that proposal. • At the end of the week, evaluate what you didn’t get done. Should you have done it for promotion, goodwill, ethics?

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As the Old Song Says, “I Got Rhythm” One of the newest electronic security methods is keystroke authentication. It turns out that your typing pattern, the pressure of your fingers on the keys and your typing speed, is unique. It allows you to prove electronically that you are who you say you are. Keystroke patterning has a long history. The military began using it more than a hundred years ago to identify individual senders of Morse code by their tapping rhythms. As the location of those senders shifted, military trackers got data on enemy movements. Currently, the biggest users of keystroke patterning are banks and credit unions, which are employing it in addition to standard password authentication. Since identity theft has become such a major problem, banks and credit unions are under a federal mandate to use stronger authentication measures to protect online customers. Adapted from Kathleen Kingsbury, “Telltale Fingertips: With Biometrics, How You Type Can Allow Websites to Know Who You Are—Or Aren’t,” Time Bonus Section, January 2007, A10; and Perry Beeman, “Keystrokes Yield ID Clues,” Des Moines Register, June 11, 2012, 1A.

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Multitasking Many workers believe they can manage some of their time-crunch problems by multitasking. Unfortunately, decades of research on the subject show that this is a false belief. It is particularly false when long-term learning or communication tasks are involved.38 Just think of all the e-mails that get sent to unintended audiences while the writer is multitasking, or all the phone calls for which the caller, busy multitasking, forgets who is being called or why in the short time between dialing and pickup. Research shows that when we think we are multitasking, we are really switching back and forth between tasks. And there is always a start-up delay involved in returning to a previous task, no matter how brief the delay. These delays may make it faster to do the tasks sequentially, in which case we will probably do them better, too. In fact, some research shows it can take up to 50% longer to multitask.39 Other research shows that multitasking hurts overall attention and memory, even when not multitasking.40 When we return to a task following an interruption—either from someone else, like a phone call, or from ourselves, like a visit to Facebook—it may take us more than 20 minutes to get back into the original task.41 Sometimes, we do not get back to the task correctly. Pilots who are interrupted in their preflight checklist may miss an item when they return to it. One crash, in which 153 people died, has been blamed on an error resulting from such an interruption.42 Some companies are allowing employees to schedule three to four hours a week for focused work. During that time, employees are allowed to ignore e-mails, phone calls, and meetings except for urgent matters.

Trends in Business Communication

LO 4-5

Both business and business communication are constantly changing. One of the biggest changes for most people is the shift to electronic communications. This all-encompassing trend is the subject of Chapter 9. Related to this shift are trends in data security and electronic privacy. Other trends are customer service, work/family balance, environmental concern, globalization and outsourcing, diversity, teamwork, job flexibility, innovation and entrepreneurship, and big data. As this list of trends suggests, rapid change itself is another major trend in the business environment.

Data Security As business communication becomes increasingly electronic, concerns about data theft mushroom. Just as individuals take steps—like not providing important identification numbers by e-mail—to prevent identity theft, organizations take steps to protect their data. The need for them to do so becomes always more urgent as hackers continue to produce more sophisticated software. ■

Names, birthdates, and possibly credit card numbers for 77 million people were stolen from Sony.

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12 million Apple IDs were stolen from the laptop of an FBI agent.

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6 million passwords were stolen from LinkedIn, which was using an outdated form of cryptography.

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Hackers gained access to 3.6 million state tax returns in South Carolina.43

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Not all hacking attacks are to gain individuals’ data. The Department of Homeland Security reported almost 200 serious attacks on power, water, and other utilities in 2012.44 Hackers are not responsible for all the lost data. Lost or stolen laptops and smartphones containing sensitive data also add to the problem. Flash drives, because of their small size, are an even bigger problem. Corporate security measures may include bans on personal electronic devices. Some companies are even disabling extra USB connections to ensure employees cannot attach these devices. Others are performing random checks of laptops to look for unauthorized or unsecured files and using scans of fingerprints, eyes, or faces to limit and track access to specific computers.45 Data security problems affect individuals, too. When hackers get names and e-mail addresses, they can send phishing messages, e-mails that try to lure receivers to send sensitive information. When hackers can connect the names and addresses to actual firms the readers use, such as banks and stores, the phishing e-mails look so official that even executives and professionals are convinced to respond.

Electronic Privacy As organizations respond to growing security concerns, their efforts often encroach on workers’ privacy. Organizations are monitoring many different kinds of electronic interactions. According to a survey by the American Management Association of 304 companies, ■

73% store and review e-mail.

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66% monitor Internet usage.

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65% block inappropriate websites.

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48% use video surveillance.

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45% record time spent on phone and numbers dialed.

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43% store and review computer files.46

The same study also showed that 45% track keystrokes (and time spent at the computer). Because of findings from such monitoring, some companies are blocking access to particular websites, especially Facebook, YouTube, sports and online shopping sites. Many organizations claim that heavy usage of these sites slows company communications such as file transfers and e-mail. Other surveillance techniques use GPS (global positioning system) chips to monitor locations of company vehicles, as well as arrival and departure times at job sites. Records from E-ZPass, the electronic toll collection system, are being used in courts as proof of infidelity. Workers may tell their spouses they are in a meeting, but E-ZPass has a record of where and when their vehicle entered or exited that day.47 Cell phones and computers give approximate location signals that are accurate enough to help law enforcement officials locate suspects. The division between corporate data security and personal privacy has become increasingly complex and blurry. Corporate surveillance does not necessarily stop when employees leave their offices or cars. It can continue to the company parking areas and even employees’ homes. Companies such as Google, Delta Air Lines, and even Burger King have fired workers for content on their personal blogs. Although many workers believe their blogs are

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Hack Attack The Sony networks were hacked in April 2011, compromising 100 million accounts, exposing customer credit card numbers, and forcing Sony to shut down the networks for a month until the damage was repaired. It was the second-largest data breach in the United States. Unlike other companies, Sony had taken hackers to court and threatened others with lawsuits. Other technical companies have been trying to make a truce with hackers: Google pays hackers who discover bugs; Microsoft permits hackers to unlock its Kinect gaming system. While the company did not know who attacked the system, the following message was left by the hackers: “We are legion.” That phrase is the motto of Anonymous, the hacker collective. Adapted from Michael Riley and Ashlee Vance, “Sony: The Company That Kicked the Hornet’s Nest,” Bloomberg Businessweek, May 16, 2011, 35–36.

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protected by the First Amendment, in most states companies can fire employees for almost any reason except discrimination.48 A survey by the American Management Association found that over a quarter of companies fired employees for e-mail misuse.49 New technologies make it increasingly easy for companies—and lawyers—to track employees. “E-discovery” software can aid searchers in sorting millions of documents and e-mails in just days to find relevant ones for court cases. They go far beyond finding specific words and terms. In some of the best, if you search for “dog,” you will also find documents with “man’s best friends” and even the notion of “walk.” Other programs can find concepts rather than just key words. Still others look at activities—who did what when, who talked to whom—to extract patterns. They find anomalies, such as switching media from e-mail to phone or a face-to-face communication, or when a document is edited an unusual number of times by unusual people.50 Other media are also connected with privacy issues. ■

Google has begun combining user data from web searches, Gmail messages, Google 1 postings, YouTube viewings, and Android phone data to make comprehensive user profiles.51

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E-books allow sellers to track not only which books you buy, but how often you open them, how many hours you spend reading them, how far you get in them, and what you underline in them.52

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Some Twitter users have found the hard way that their messages are not private. Paul Chambers lost his job and was convicted of threatening to blow up an airport after sending a joking tweet to his friends.53

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Detroit Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick was charged with perjury and forced to resign after text messages he sent were used against him by prosecutors.

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Officials investigating the Boston Marathon bombing used photos from private cell phones, as well as security cameras, to identify the bombers.

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Employees have also been fired for posting on their personal Facebook site disparaging comments about their employers.

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Even “old” technology can threaten privacy. Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich was impeached on the basis of taped phone conversations.

Although more individuals are starting to sue over their firings, and a few are winning, the legal scale is still weighted in favor of employers. In 2010 the Supreme Court ruled that searches on work equipment are reasonable and not a violation of Fourth Amendment rights. Some companies help individuals protect their privacy by offering services that delete messages and documents from multiple phones at a set time. Users can set an expiration time for their messages, which will be used to delete the messages from their own phones, the recipients’ phones, and the messaging service’s computer servers.54 Other companies, for example, allow users to choose what kinds of ads they will see or to opt out. Companies such as Microsoft and Mozilla are beginning to include do-not-track features in their popular Internet browsers, to keep advertisers and others from monitoring online habits.55 In 2009, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) endorsed industry selfregulation to protect consumer privacy. Websites and companies that collect consumer data such as searches performed and websites visited are to (1) clearly notify consumers that they do so, (2) provide an easy way to opt out, (3) protect the data, and (4) limit its retention, but breaches of these guidelines

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continue to occur.56 Recently Facebook settled with the FTC about privacy changes deemed “unfair and deceptive.” The settlement included privacy audits for 20 years.57 A highly publicized study by the Wall Street Journal of the 50 most popular websites in the United States found that those sites installed 3,180 tracking files on the test computer. Twelve sites, including Dictionary.com, Comcast.net, and MSN.com, installed more than 100 tracking tools each. Some tracking files could track sensitive health and financial data; other files could transmit keystrokes; still other files could reattach trackers that a person deleted. Apps on smartphones are performing similar trackings.58

Customer Service One effect of the recession was to push more businesses into focusing on their customer service. Amazon, for instance, is well known for its mission to be “Earth’s most customer centric company.” But it is far from alone. Customer satisfaction is increasingly important for all businesses; in fact, it is a leading indicator of financial success.59 Companies with higher scores on the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) tend to see better sales and stock performance than do companies with lower scores.60 In an age where unhappy customers can share their experiences with thousands on social media, focusing on customer satisfaction is vital. Improving customer service doesn’t always mean spending extra money. Companies are learning to cross-train employees, so they can fill in where needed. Other companies are giving extra attention to their best customers to keep them loyal. Walgreens is training its pharmacists to work more closely with patients with chronic illnesses such as diabetes.61 A tried and true way of improving customer service is increasing the oral communication skills of sales reps and customer service agents. See Chapter 3 for more on customerservice.

Work/Family Balance In addition to improving customer satisfaction, businesses are also focusing on their own employees. To reduce turnover, and increase employee satisfaction, companies are trying to be more family friendly by providing flextime, telecommuting, time off for family needs, and extended breaks for caregiving. Deloitte has initiated a program bringing teams together to decide schedules, including telecommuting, flextime, and compressed workweeks. Ernst & Young pays for some child care costs incurred from travel or overtime work. Procter & Gamble allows all office employees to shift their workday up to two hours earlier or later.62 At times, employees find ways other than physical presence to demonstrate their commitment and enthusiasm for organizational goals. Thanks to technology advances, employees can use laptops, e-mail, or cell phones to do work at any time, including weekends and evenings. The downside of this trend is that sometimes work and family life are not so much balanced as blurred. Some employees are also expected to conduct business 24 hours a day because of different time zones of workplaces. The flexibility of employees is necessary in an age of downsizing and globaliza- Many organizations promote virtual offices, which allow tion, but it means that families are being impacted. employees to work from home.

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The issue of work/life balance leapt into the news when Yahoo’s CEO notified employees that they were no longer allowed to work from home. An internal memo explained,

Facebook is now rewarding its ethical hackers with Visa cards for catching “bugs” in their system. The card values range from $500 to $5,000, depending upon the peril of the bug. While many other technological companies do not buy information from hackers, Facebook paid hackers $190,000 in six months; the largest award was $24,000. Bug hunters find the work to be an enjoyable challenge, and with the financial incentive attached, it can become a helpful addition to a regular paycheck. Other technology companies are using similar tactics to catch bugs. Google has already paid $700,000 in fees to bug hunters, and Microsoft is organizing a contest to develop a new type of security technology. The prize? $250,000. Adapted from Robert Levine, “Black Bounty for Facebook’s Bug Hunters,” Bloomberg Businessweek, January 30, 2012, 40–41.

To become the absolute best place to work, communication and collaboration will be important, so we need to be working side-by-side. That is why it is critical that we are all present in our offices. Some of the best decisions and insights come from hallway and cafeteria discussions, meeting new people, and impromptu team meetings.63

After some expressions of outrage, business articles started noting that Yahoo had a corporate culture problem for both office workers and telecommuters. The CEO found empty parking lots and office floors during work hours. Too few telecommuters were logging into the company’s system.64 The debate over telecommuting has been ongoing. Proponents point out that home environments can provide quiet, uninterrupted time for concentrated thought. Opponents note that working at home invites misbehaviors such as doing private tasks on company time and makes successful collaborative work harder. Both sides generally agree that telecommuting involves trust (an established record of productivity) and specific outcomes. One final caveat: a Stanford University study showed that home workers were 50% less likely to get promoted than office workers.65 Most of the studies of telecommuting are self-reported studies. The only scientific study with randomized groups was in a Chinese travel company where half of the employees’ earnings was based on call and order volume.66

Environmental Concern As climate change becomes an issue of increasing concern, more and more companies are trying to soften their environmental impact. They do so for a variety of reasons in addition to environmental concerns. Sometimes such awareness saves money; sometimes executives hope it will create favorable publicity for the company or counterbalance negative publicity. Many marketing experts say that green advertising is now just standard operating procedure.67 Environmental activist groups such as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth go even further. These groups have sharply and publicly criticized some large companies for exaggerating their commitment to the environment. One study claims that 95% of the “green” products it examined made claims that were lies, unsupported by proof, or couched in meaningless language (“all-natural”).68 Various research studies show that token environmental efforts negatively affect public opinion.69 But there is nothing “token” in the environmental efforts of some major companies. For instance, Levi Strauss is trying to reduce its environmental impact in everything it does, including asking its customers to wash their jeans less often. PepsiCo is working to limit its own water use; it is also working to help conserve water in communities around the world. In spring 2013 it announced it had met its goal of helping provide access to safe water for 3 million people in developing countries and had set a new goal of helping an addition 3 million by 2016.70

Globalization and Outsourcing In the global economy, importing and exporting are just a start. More and more companies have offices, stores, and factories around the world. ■

McDonald’s serves food in over 119 countries on six continents.71

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UPS serves more than 220 countries and territories.72

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Coca-Cola sells its beverages in more than 200 countries.73

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Walmart has 6,155 stores outside the continental United States, including ones in Central America, South America, Africa, Europe, and Asia.74

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The site of the store, factory, or office may not be the site of all the jobs. A data center in Washington can support many workers in India as businesses are outsourcing domestically and globally. Outsourcing means going outside the company for products and services that once were produced by the company’s employees. Companies may outsource work such as technology services, customer service, tax services, legal services, accounting services, benefit communications, manufacturing, and marketing. Outsourcing is often a win– win solution: the company saves money or gets better service, and the outsourcers make a profit. In The World Is Flat, Thomas Friedman says, “The accountant who wants to stay in business in America will be the one who focuses on designing creative, complex strategies . . . . It means having quality-time discussions with clients.”75 He sees the work of the future as customization, innovation, service, and problem solving.76 All the challenges of communicating in one culture and country increase exponentially when people communicate across cultures and countries. Succeeding in a global market requires intercultural competence, the ability to communicate sensitively with people from other cultures and countries, based on an understanding of cultural differences. To learn more about international communication, see Chapter 7.

Diversity

Many businesses, such as McDonald’s, now serve food in Asian countries.

Women, people of color, and immigrants have always been part of the U.S. workforce. But for most of this country’s history, they were relegated to clerical, domestic, or menial jobs. Now, U.S. businesses realize that barriers to promotion hurt the bottom line as well as individuals. Success depends on using the brains and commitment as well as the hands and muscles of every worker. In the past decade, we have also become aware of other sources of diversity beyond those of gender, race, and country of origin: age, religion, class, regional differences, sexual orientation, and physical disabilities are now areas of diversity. Helping each worker reach his or her potential requires more flexibility from managers as well as more knowledge about intercultural communication. And it’s crucial to help workers from different backgrounds understand each other—especially in today’s global economy. To learn more about diversity and the workforce, read Chapter 7.

Teamwork More and more companies are getting work done through teams. Teamwork brings together people’s varying strengths and talents to solve problems and make decisions. Often, teams are cross-functional (drawing from different jobs or functions) or cross-cultural (including people from different nations or cultural groups served by the company). Teams, including cross-functional teams, helped Sarasota Memorial Hospital resolve major problems with customer and employee satisfaction. For example, team members from the emergency room recorded every step in the process from pulling into the parking lot through decisions about patient care, and then they eliminated unnecessary steps. The ER team then worked with the laboratory staff to improve the process of getting test results. At Michelin, the French tire maker, teams bring together people from the United States and Europe. The exchange between the two continents helps employees on both sides of the Atlantic understand each other’s perspectives and needs.77

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Increasing emphasis on teamwork is a major reason given by organizations such as AT&T, Intel, Hewlett-Packard, and the U.S. Interior Department for calling telecommuting workers back to the office.78 To learn more about working in teams, see Chapter 8.

Job Flexibility In traditional jobs, people did what they were told to do. But today, jobs that are routine can readily be done in other countries at lower cost. Many U.S. jobs have already been subject to such “offshoring,” and more are sure to follow. The work that remains in the United States is more likely to be complex work requiring innovation, flexibility, and adaptation to new learning. Today’s workers do whatever needs to be done, based on the needs of customers, colleagues, and anyone else who depends on their work. They help team members finish individual work; they assist office mates with pressing deadlines. They are resourceful: they know how to find information and solution ideas. They work extra hours when the task demands it. They are ready to change positions and even locations when asked to do so. They need new skill sets even when they don’t change jobs. At Sarasota Memorial Hospital, food service workers do more than bring food to patients; they open containers, resolve problems with meals, help patients read their menus, and adjust orders to meet patients’ preferences. This attentiveness not only serves the patients, but it also is part of a team-spirited approach to patient care that in this case frees nurses to do other work.79 The experience at Sarasota Memorial is backed up by research suggesting the most effective workers don’t see work as assigned tasks. Instead, they define their own goals based on the needs of customers and clients.80 Your parents may have worked for the same company all their lives. You may do that, too, but you have to be prepared to job-hunt throughout your career. That means continuing to learn—keeping up with new technologies, new economic and political realities, new ways of interacting with people.

Innovation and Entrepreneurship As global competition increases, and industrial milieus change ever more quickly, innovation becomes more and more important. Xerox was known for photocopiers, but with paperless offices, the company had to change. Now Xerox offers new services, such as managing E-ZPass and red-light camera systems for many states.81 Researchers say that innovation/creativity is a process that can be learned. Ideo, the world-famous design firm with hundreds of design awards, says the first step is empathy, or you-attitude, with customers, both internal and external ones. This empathy is gained by getting out of the office and mingling with the users of your products and services.82 The next step is to generate ideas, lots of ideas, and to keep track of those ideas. Idea generation is most effective when individuals draw upon a large volume of diverse ideas and when organizations bring together a diverse group of people. The best problem solutions frequently come from combining existing ideas and from people who know enough to understand the problem but who are not in the specific area of the problem.83 Websites such as InnoCentive allow organizations to find problem solutions through crowdsourcing; 74% of the public challenges (organizations can limit the challenges to specific sets of people, such as a group of employees) on InnoCentive pay cash awards to solvers.84 After the ideas comes feedback, phrased in positive tone. The chairman of Ideo recommends starting with “I like . . .” and then moving on to “I wish . . . .”

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Once these ideas have coalesced into a concrete plan, it is time to take the first step to making the idea a reality. Experts suggesting plunging in with a small step that can be tackled immediately.85 One Ideo client, the giant health care provider Kaiser Permanente, now has its own innovation center that follows the Ideo way. That center tackled the all-too-common problem of medication errors, which harm more than 1.5 million people in the United States each year. A team shadowed doctors, nurses, and pharmacists as they prescribed, administered, and filled medications. They made videos; they kept journals. And they discovered that interruptions were the cause of most errors. So the team brainstormed solutions, including “Leave Me Alone!” aprons and red “Do Not Cross!” lines in front of medication stations. The program has reduced interruptions by 50%.86 Many other companies also rely on all employees for suggestions. A classic article in the Harvard Business Review made famous the examples of 3M (where researchers can spend 15% of their time on ideas that don’t need management approval), Thermo Electron (where managers can “spin out” promising new businesses), and Xerox (where employees write business proposals competing for corporate funds to develop new technologies).87 Google is famous for its 20% rule: technical employees can spend about 20% of their time on projects outside their main job, and even their managers cannot remove that freemargin.88 The spirit of innovation is inspiring some workers to start their own businesses. The U.S. Census Bureau counted 21.4 million nonemployer businesses (self-employed workers without employees).89 In fact, these businesses are the majority of all U.S. businesses. These entrepreneurs have to handle all the communication in the business: writing business plans; making presentations to venture capitalists; drafting surveys; responding to customer complaints; and marketing the product or service.

Big Data One of the forces driving innovation in some companies is big data. Big data is the term for the enormous amount of data generated by our electronic communications—e-mails, texts, instant messages, tweets, apps, web searches, Facebook postings, and GPS signals from phones. The amount is measured in petabytes (one quadrillion bytes, or “the equivalent of about 20 million filing cabinets’ worth of text”) and exabytes (one billion gigabytes).90 As of 2012, each day sees the creation of about 2.5 exabytes of data; the volume is doubling about every 40 months. Experts estimate that only about 0.5% of this data is analyzed.91 Some of the uses of this data are well known: game developers use it to add more attractive features, Amazon uses it to steer us to other purchases we might like, Google uses it to help us find websites and to help advertisers find us, shipping firms use data from truck sensors to shorten routes and cut gas consumption. But the extent of usage is less well known. By monitoring billions of searches (for items such as cough medicine), Google is faster at predicting locations of flu outbreaks than the Center for Disease Control.92 InterContinental Hotels used its data to launch a new marketing campaign with over 1,500 different customized messages.93 Walmart is estimated to collect more than 2.5 petabytes of data hourly from customer transactions.94 To use big data effectively, organizations need to have specific goals in mind; they cannot just randomly collect and analyze data. They also need personnel who can find patterns in large data sets and translate those patterns into useful information for managers, who will act on the data. Finally, they need employees who are adept at understanding visuals and data displays (see Chapter 16).

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Data Mining Competitions Kaggle was created to provide data mining competitions for those who enjoy working on solving data problems. An organization will give Kaggle the problem or question it wants answered, the necessary data set, and the prize for the winning person orgroup. Companies that have hired Kaggle to run these competitions have included Deloitte, Ford, and Microsoft. Participants may include “geeks” from places like IBM and MIT, but participants from other fields, such as archeology and glaciology, also compete. A few of the data competitions that Kaggle hosted werefrom ■

Wikipedia for predicting the number of edits an editor will make.

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The Australian government for predicting traffic over the next 24 hours.

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Allstate for improved models to price automobile insurance.

Each of these competitions offered a $10,000 prize, but smaller companies with smaller prizes also post on Kaggle. The largest prize offered is from the Heritage Provider Network: $3 million will be given to the person who can most accurately predict which patients will be admitted to a hospital within a year based upon past insurance data. Adapted from Ashlee Vance, “Fight Club for Geeks,” Bloomberg Businessweek, January 9–15, 2012, 37–38.

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Rapid Rate of Change As any employee who has watched his or her job shift can testify, change— even change for the better—is stressful. Even when change promises improvements, people have to work to learn new skills, new habits, and new attitudes. Rapid change means that no college course or executive MBA program can teach you everything you need to know for the rest of your working life. You’ll need to stay abreast of professional changes by reading trade journals as well as professional websites and blogs, participating in professional Listservs, and attending professional events. Take advantage of your company’s training courses and materials; volunteer for jobs that will help you gain new skills and knowledge. Pay particular attention to your communication skills; they become even more important as you advance up your career ladder. A survey of 1,400 financial executives found that 75% considered oral, written, and interpersonal skills even more important for finance professionals now than they were just a few years ago.95 The skills you polish along the way can stand you in good stead for the rest of your life: critical thinking, computer savvy, problem solving, and the ability to write, speak, and work well with other people are vital in most jobs. It’s almost a cliché, but it is still true: the most important knowledge you gain in college is how to learn.

Summary by Learning Objectives LO 4-1

Why ethics is so important in business communication.

The economic news continues to create concern over lapses in business ethics. On the other hand, positive ethical efforts are also increasing. LO 4-2

How corporate culture impacts the business environment.

Corporate cultures range from informal to formal and impact such widely diverse areas as worker performance and sales. LO 4-3

Why interpersonal communication is important.

Interpersonal communication includes such areas as listening, conversational style, body language, etiquette, and networking. Its importance in career success is receiving new recognition.

LO 4-4 How to use your time more efficiently. Time management skills are also crucial to job success. Probably the most important time management technique is to prioritize the demands on your time, and make sure you spend the majority of your time on the most important demands. Decades of research on multitasking show that it does not increase job performance and may actually hinder it. LO 4-5

What the trends in business communication are.

Twelve trends in business, government, and nonprofit organizations affect business and administrative communication: data security, electronic privacy, customer service, work/family balance, environmental concern, globalization and outsourcing, diversity, teamwork, job flexibility, innovation and entrepreneurship, big data, and rapid change.

Continuing Case The All-Weather Case, set in an HR department in a manufacturing company, extends through all 19 chapters and is available at www.mhhe.com/locker11e. The portion for this chapter asks students to create a message introducing a change in the problem-solving environment at the company.

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Exercises and Cases 4.1

1. Working in small groups, discuss some of the challenges you see to protecting your privacy on theInternet.

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Should companies be allowed to track your online activity? Is it OK if they notify you they are tracking you? Do you like targeted placement ads, similar to Google’s recommendations for you? Where do you find a balance between allowing Internet sites to use your information to provide better service and protecting yourprivacy? Are employers justified in monitoring employees’ e-mail, Twitter, and Internet usage on company machines? Are employers justified in monitoring employees’ Facebook accounts? Do you think it

is fair when employees get fired for comments they post on their Facebook site? ■ What do you think of companies such as Google tracking searches to produce sites like Google Flu Trends, which shows where people are getting sick during flu season? 2. The Federal Trade Commission is considering a “Do Not Track” option. Like the Do Not Call Registry, it would offer consumers a way to avoid some electronic marketing. See http://www.ftc.gov/ opa/reporter/privacy/donottrack.shtml for more information. If such an option becomes available, would you use it? Suppose that big websites such as Google or Facebook started dropping Do Not Track customers. How would that action influence your opinion? Write an e-mail to your instructor explaining your decision.

Following Trends in Business Communication

Pick three of the trends discussed in this chapter and explain how they have impacted business communications in an organization where you—or a friend or family member—have worked.

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5. What are some communication signals you might receive from specific body language cues? (LO 4-3) 6. What are some ways to manage your time more efficiently? (LO 4-4) 7. What are 12 trends in business communication? What do these trends mean for you? (LO 4-5) 8. What are some electronic privacy issues that could affect you at your workplace? (LO 4-5)

Protecting Privacy Online

As companies demand ever more accurate audiences to whom they can pitch their products and services, the debate over online tracking versus privacy continues.

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*Go to www.mhhe.com/locker11e for additional Exercises and Cases.

Reviewing the Chapter

1. What are some positive ethical efforts that are getting attention? (LO 4-1) 2. What are some ethical components of communication? (LO 4-1) 3. What are some elements of corporate culture? How do they affect business? (LO 4-2) 4. What are some ways to improve interpersonal communication? (LO 4-3)

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As your instructor directs, a. Share your information in small groups. b. Present your group findings to your classmates. c. Post your information online for your classmates.

Applying Ethics Guidelines

Reread the ethics guidelines by Warren Buffett (“Warren Buffett on Ethics,” page 88) and Tony Hsieh (page 91). In small groups, apply them to some business ethics situations currently in the news or occurring in your discipline.

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How would the situations be handled by Buffett? Hsieh? Do you approve of those solutions? Do you find one statement more helpful than the other? Why?

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Making Ethical Choices

Indicate whether you consider each of the following actions ethical, unethical, or a gray area. Which of the actions would you do? Which would you feel uncomfortable doing? Which would you refuse to do? Discuss your answers with a small group of classmates. In what ways did knowing you would share with a group change your answers? 1. Taking home office supplies (e.g., pens, markers, calculators, etc.) for personal use. 2. Inflating your evaluation of a subordinate because you know that only people ranked excellent will get pay raises. 3. Making personal long-distance calls on the company phone. 4. Updating your Facebook page and visiting the pages of friends during business hours. 5. Writing a feasibility report about a new product and de-emphasizing test results that show it could cause cancer. 6. Coming in to the office in the evening to use the company’s computer for personal projects.

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Analyzing Business Ethics

New Oriental Education & Technology Group offers Chinese students intensive courses to prepare for SAT, GRE, and TOEFL exams. The object of the courses is to enable the students to achieve scores that will get them into American colleges and universities. The courses provide traditional prep help, such as cramming vocabulary words, but they also offer more controversial techniques. ■ The courses avail themselves of websites where students download the test questions they remember immediately after the exam. Because the tests do recycle some questions to ensure score consistency over time, the courses can prep students for actual exam questions. ■ They provide tricks (e.g., females in the test passages are always smarter than males) that help students choose correct answers just by looking at the choices, without understanding the passages. ■ Since many of the students are good at math, they recommend that five minutes into the math section, their students should flip back to the reading section and finish it. Flipping is prohibited, but this timing helps students escape the attention of the proctors, who look for it at the beginning and end of each test section.

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7. Designing an ad campaign for a cigarette brand. 8. Working as an accountant for a company that makes or advertises cigarettes. 9. Working as a manager in a company that exploits its nonunionized hourly workers. 10. Writing copy for a company’s annual report hiding or minimizing the fact that the company pollutes the environment. 11. “Padding” your expense account by putting on it charges you did not pay for. 12. Telling a job candidate that the company “usually” grants cost-of-living raises every six months, even though you know that the company is losing money and plans to cancel cost-of-living raises for the nextyear. 13. Laughing at the racist or sexist jokes a client makes, even though you find them offensive. 14. Reading the Wall Street Journal on company time.

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They help students prepare essays and speeches on topics—such as biographies of famous Americans— that can be memorized and adapted to many situations, thus avoiding extemporaneous performances. The upside of these efforts is that many of the students do fulfill dreams of getting into American schools. The downside is that many of these same students have such poor English skills that they cannot understand the lectures or participate in class discussions. Nor can they write class papers without help. Unfortunately, they score so well that they even sometimes test out of the transitional programs many schools have to help students with shaky English skills.96 Is New Oriental an ethical business? What would Warren Buffett say (see page 88)? What would Tony Hsieh say (see page 91)? How does New Oriental fare using Michael Davis’s tests (see page 91)? What are New Oriental’s effects on its students? Why do American schools accept these students? What could be done to make the situation more ethical?

Analyzing Communication Ethics

Reread the “Egg-semplary Ethics” sidebar, page 89. In small groups, discuss what you would have done in that situation.

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What aspects of the situation would have made you break the confidentiality agreement? What aspects of the case would make you keep quiet?

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Apply the tests in Michael Davis’s ethical decisionmaking system (page 91). Which tests most help you to decide what you would do in this situation?

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Where did you go? Why? What categories of service did you observe? What examples of good service did you see?

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seem to be common with many companies? Which features did you find particularly appealing? Write an e-mail for your instructor containing your findings.

Analyzing Customer Service

Go to a business on campus or in your community where you can observe customer service for a half hour. Make sure you observe at least three different kinds of service. ■

a form of discrimination? Discuss your answers in smallgroups.

Analyzing Corporate Culture: II

Go to Fortune’s “100 Best Companies to Work For” website: http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/ best-companies/. Look up six companies you find interesting. What are unique features of their corporate culture? What features

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Analyzing Nonverbal Communication ■

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What are some dominant traits you see among the students? What are some interesting behaviors you see in individual students? Does the nonverbal communication differ from the beginning and end of the class?

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What examples of service that could be improved did you see? How would you improve it? If you were the manager of the business, what changes would you make to impact customer service?

Write an e-mail to your instructor containing your findings.

Choose one of your courses and make notes on nonverbal communications you see in the classroom.

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Did everyone in your group reach the same conclusion? What reasons were most commonly given?

Analyzing Corporate Culture: I

Some businesses are deciding not to hire people with visible body art. Do you think such policies are allowable expressions of corporate culture, or are they

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What are nonverbal communications from the instructor? Overall, what does the nonverbal communication in the classroom tell you about student learning in that class?

Write an e-mail to your instructor containing your findings.

Analyzing Body Language: I

Go to www.ted.com and search for “Body Language.” Watch the Ted Talk by social psychologist Amy Cuddy, “Your Body Language Shapes Who You Are.” After watching the video, break into small groups and discuss the following questions. ■ When have you made a judgment about someone based upon that person’s nonverbal communication? Describe the situation: What were they doing? What did you think of them? ■ Think back to the last stressful evaluative experience you had (such as an interview or class presentation). How did you feel during that time? Do you remember how you were standing or sitting?

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Practice some power poses. Each person in your group should practice a power pose for two minutes. After those two minutes, have each person present his or her career goals in a one-minute presentation to the rest of the group. Observe each other carefully. How does each person look? Discuss body language and presence. Outside-of-class activity: Tell your friends about the Ted Talk by Amy Cuddy, and encourage them to try their own power poses. Take pictures of them in their power poses and bring to class for discussion.

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Analyzing Body Language: II

Go to a location such as your campus or city library where you can watch people at work and rest. Spend a half hour observing examples of body language around you. Make sure your half hour includes examples of at least one group at work, individuals at work, and individuals relaxing. ■ What interesting examples of body language did you note? ■ What were some common features of body language?

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most important subjects? Your hardest subjects? Did you spend time on projects that are due later in the term? Did you spend time on health-related items? Do you see items on which you spent too much time? Too little time? Did you spend any time on items that would fit in Stephen Covey’s quadrant II (see page 101)? As your instructor directs, a. Share your findings in small groups. b. Write an e-mail for your instructor containing your findings.

Analyzing the Business Environment Where You Work

In an e-mail to your instructor, describe and analyze the business environment at an organization where you have worked. Use this chapter as a guide for content. What

4.16

Did you see any unique body language? Could you make assumptions about group relations based on the body language you saw exhibited by members of the group? ■ How did the body language of individuals who were relaxing differ from that of the group members? Write an e-mail for your instructor containing your findings. ■

Analyzing Your Time Management

For two days, write down exactly how you spend your time. Be specific. Don’t just say “two hours studying.” Instead, write how long you spent on each item of study (e.g., 15 min. reviewing underlinings in sociology chapter, 20 min. reviewing class notes, an hour and 20 min. reading accounting chapter). Include time spent on items such as grooming, eating, talking with friends (both in person and on phone), texting, watching television, and sleeping. Now analyze your time record. Does anything surprise you? How much time did you spend studying? Is it enough? Did you spend more time studying your

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aspects of the environment did you like? Dislike? What aspects helped your job performance? What aspects hindered your job performance?

Participating in a Networking Event

In this exercise, you are going to participate in a networking event, an abbreviated “talk and walk.” To prepare for the event,

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Create business cards for yourself, using a computer application of your choice. List people in your class whom you would like to meet (give a visual description if you do not know their names). Make a list of questions you would like to have answered. Collect materials to use for taking notes during the event.

During the event, you will have six three-minute sessions to talk with a fellow student and exchange business cards. Your instructor will time the sessions and tell you when to change people. Remember that the other person also has questions she or he wants answered.

After the event, analyze what you have learned. Here are some questions to get you started:

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Who was the most interesting? Why? Who did you like the most? Why? Who would you most like to have on a team in this class? Why? Did you meet anyone who might become a professional contact? Explain. What lessons did you learn about networking?

As your instructor directs, a. Share your analyses in small groups; then prepare an informal oral report for the class. b. Write your analysis in an e-mail to your teacher. c. Write your analysis in an e-mail to post on your class website.

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Notes 1. James O’Toole, “New York Sues Credit Suisse in Latest Mortgage Lawsuit,” CNNMoney, November 20, 2012, http:// money.cnn.com/2012/11/20/investing/credit-suissenew-york/index.html?eref=mrss_igoogle_business. 2. Charles Riley and Emily Jane Fox, “GlaxoSmithKline in $3 Billion Fraud Settlement,” CNNMoney, July 2, 2012, http://money.cnn.com/2012/07/02/news/companies/ GlaxoSmithKline-settlement/index.htm; and Peter Loftus and Jon Kamp, “Glaxo To Pay $750 Million in Pact; Whistleblower Due Big Payment,” Wall Street Journal, November 27, 2010, B3. 3. James O’Toole, “Visa, MasterCard Settle Antitrust Case,” CNNMoney, July 13, 2012, http://money.cnn .com/2012/07/13/news/companies/visa-mastercardsettlement/index.htm. 4. Howard Mustoe and Gavin Finch, “HSBC Apologizes to Investors for Compliance Failures,” Businessweek.com, July30, 2012, http://www.businessweek.com/news/201207-30/hsbc-profit-beats-estimates-on-income-fromasset-sales. 5. Joe Palazzolo, “FCPA Inc.: The Business of Bribery,” Wall Street Journal, October 2, 2012, B1. 6. Mary Williams Walsh and Ron Nixon, “S.&P. E-Mails on Mortgage Crisis Show Alarm and Gallows Humor,” DealBook, February 5, 2013, http://dealbook.nytimes .com/2013/02/05/case-details-internal-tension-at-s-pamid-subprime-problems/. 7. Michael Rothfeld, Susan Pulliam, and Chad Bray, “Fund Titan Found Guilty,” Wall Street Journal, May 12, 2011, A1. 8. Ethics Resource Center, 2011 National Business Ethics Survey, 12, 39, accessed April 11, 2013, http://www.ethics .org/nbes/files/FinalNBES-web.pdf. 9. Mary C. Gentile, “Keeping Your Colleagues Honest,” Harvard Business Review 88, no. 2 (February 2010): 114–15. 10. “United Nations Global Compact Participants,” United Nations Global Compact, October 23, 2012, http://www .unglobalcompact.org/ParticipantsAndStakeholders/ index.html. 11. “About Us,” Clinton Global Initiative, accessed April 12, 2013, http://www.clintonglobalinitiative.org/aboutus/default .asp. 12. Google, “About,” accessed April 12, 2013, http://www .google.org/about.html. 13. “Robin Hood,” accessed May 8, 2013, http://www.robinhood .org; and Andy Serwer, “The Legend of Robin Hood,” Fortune, September 18, 2006, 103–14. 14. Merck, “The Merck MECTIZAN Donation Program— River Blindness,” accessed April 23, 2013, http://www .merck.com/cr/docs/River%20Blindness%20Fact%20 Sheet.pdf. 15. Marc Benioff and Karen Southwick, Compassionate Capitalism: How Corporations Can Make Doing Good an Integral Part of Doing Well (Franklin Lakes, NJ: Career Press, 2004), 101–04. 16. Quoted from Tony Hsieh, Delivering Happiness: A Path to Profits, Passion, and Purpose (New York: Business Plus, 2010), 243. 17. Michael Davis, Ethics and the University (New York: Routledge, 1999), 166–67. 18. M. Rose, “Three-Ring Ad Circus: Ogilvy & Mather’s Surreal Canton Fun House,” Bloomberg Businessweek, October 8, 2012, 88–89.

19. Leigh Buchanan, “Learning from the Best: Smart Strategies from the Top Small Company Workplaces,” Inc., June 2010, 92. 20. Ellen Byron, “Merger Challenge: Unite Toothbrush, Toothpaste: P&G and Gillette Find Creating Synergy Can Be Harder than It Looks,” Wall Street Journal, April 24, 2007,A1. 21. Phred Dvorak, “Hotelier Finds Happiness Keeps Staff Checked In,” Wall Street Journal, December 17, 2007, B3. 22. Hsieh, Delivering Happiness, 150–65. 23. Ibid., 148. 24. Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence: The Tenth Anniversary Edition (New York: Bantam, 2005), xiv–xv. 25. Thomas Gordon and Judith Gordon Sands, P.E.T. in Action (New York: P. H. Wyden, 1976), 117–18. 26. Deborah Tannen, That’s Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships, Rei Rep ed. (New York: Harper Perennial, 2011). 27. Daniel N. Maltz and Ruth A. Borker, “A Cultural Approach to Male–Female Miscommunication,” in Language and Social Identity, ed. John J. Gumperz (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 202. 28. Marie Helweg-Larson et al., “To Nod or Not to Nod: An Observational Study of Nonverbal Communication and Status in Female and Male College Students,” Psychology of Women Quarterly 28, no. 4 (2004): 358–61. 29. Carol Kinsey Goman, “10 Common Body Language Traps for Women in the Workplace,” On Leadership (blog), Washington Post, March 3, 2011, http://www.washingtonpost.com/ blogs/on-leadership/post/10-common-body-languagetraps-for-women-in-the-workplace/2011/03/03/AFl0GFbF_ blog.html. 30. Alex Pentland, “We Can Measure the Power of Charisma,” Harvard Business Review 88, no.1 (January 2010): 34. 31. Alex “Sandy” Pentland, “The Power of Nonverbal Communication,” Wall Street Journal, October 20, 2008, R2. 32. Carol Kinsey Goman, “10 Simple and Powerful Body Language Tips for 2013,” Forbes, January 7, 2013, http:// www.forbes.com/sites/carolkinseygoman/2013/01/07/ 10-simple-and-powerful-body-language-tips-for-2013/2/; and “Leadership: Strike a Pose,” Inc., May 2012, 108–12. 33. Goleman, Emotional Intelligence, 161–62. 34. Ibid., 162. 35. “Social Studies,” Businessweek, June 14, 2010, 72–3. 36. Jessica Hodgins, “‘You Can’t Make More Time’: Randy Pausch’s Heart-felt Views on Using Time to the Fullest,” BusinessWeek, September 1, 2008, 71. 37. Stephen R. Covey, The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People: Powerful Lessons in Personal Change (New York: Free Press, 2004), 150–54. 38. Jared Sandberg, “Yes, Sell All My Stocks. No, the 3:15 from JFK. and Get Me Mr. Sister,” Wall Street Journal, September 12, 2006, B1. 39. Toddi Gutner, “Beat the Clock: E-mails, Faxes, Phone Calls, Oh My. Here’s How to Get It All Done,” BusinessWeek SmallBiz, February/March 2008, 58. 40. Adam Gorlick, “Media Multitaskers Pay Mental Price, Stanford Study Shows,” Stanford Report, August 24, 2009, http:// news.stanford.edu/news/2009/august24/multitaskresearch-study-082409.html. 41. Rachel Emma Jackson, “Here’s Why You Won’t Finish This Article” Wall Street Journal, December 12, 2012, B1.

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42. Sharon Begley, “Will the BlackBerry Sink the Presidency?” Newsweek, February 16, 2009, 37. 43. Nick Wingfield, Ian Sherr, and Ben Worthen, “Hacker Raids Sony Videogame Network,” Wall Street Journal, April 27, 2011, A1; Parmy Olson, “FBI Agent’s Laptop ‘Hacked’ to Grab 12 Million Apple IDs,” Forbes .com, September 4, 2012, http://www.forbes.com/sites/ parmyolson/2012/09/04/fbi-agents-laptop-hackedto-grab-12-million-apple-ids-anonymous-claims/; David Goldman, “More Than 6 Million LinkedIn Passwords Stolen,” CNNMoney, June 6, 2012, http://money.cnn .com/2012/06/06/technology/linkedin-password-hack/ index.htm; and “Nation and World Watch,” Des Moines Register, October 30, 2012, 2A. 44. Michael Chertoff, “How Safe Is Your Data?” Wall Street Journal, January 22, 2013, B16. 45. Stephanie Armour, “Employers Look Closely at What Workers Do on Job: Companies Get More Vigilant as Technology Increases their Risks,” USA Today, November 8, 2006, 2B; and M. P. McQueen, “Laptop Lockdown: Companies Start Holding Employees Responsible for Security of Portable Devices They Use for Work,” Wall Street Journal, June 28, 2006, D1. 46. American Management Association, “The Latest on Workplace Monitoring and Surveillance,” March 13, 2008, http://www.amanet.org/training/articles/The-Lateston-Workplace-Monitoring-and-Surveillance.aspx. 47. Chris Newmarker, “On the Off-Ramp to Adultery, There’s No Fooling E-ZPass,” Des Moines Register, August 12, 2007,8A. 48. Armour, “Employers Look Closely at What Workers Do on Job”; M. P. McQueen, “Workers’ Terminations for Computer Misuse Rise,” Wall Street Journal, July 15, 2006, B4; and “Burger King Fires Workers over Blogs,” Wall Street Journal, May 14, 2008, A18. 49. Dalia Fahmy, “Can You Be Fired for Sending Personal E-Mails at Work?” ABC News, December 17, 2009, http:// abcnews.go.com/Business/GadgetGuide/supremecourt-employee-rights-privacy-workplace-emails/story? id59345057. 50. John Markoff, “Armies of Expensive Lawyers, Replaced by Cheaper Software,” New York Times, March 4, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/05/science/05legal .html. 51. Karen Weise, “Who Does Google Think You Are?” Bloomberg Businessweek, February 6, 2012, 39–40. 52. Alexandra Alter, “Your E-Book is Reading You,” Wall Street Journal, June 29, 2012, D1. 53. “Twitter Tirades Test Free-Speech Limits,” Des Moines Register, November 25, 2010, 4A. 54. Lauren A.E. Schuker, “Secret Texting . . . Pass It On,” Wall Street Journal, February 4, 2011, B11. 55. Nick Wingfield and Julia Angwin, “Microsoft Adds Privacy Tool,” Wall Street Journal, March 15, 2011, B1. 56. Emily Steel and Jessica E. Vascellaro, “FTC Backs Web-Ad Self-Regulation: Agency Lays Out Principles for Protecting the Privacy of ‘Targeted’ Users,” Wall Street Journal, February 13, 2009, B7. 57. Evelyn M. Rusli, “Facebook Simplifies Privacy Settings,” Wall Street Journal, December 13, 2012, B4. 58. Julia Angwin and Tom McGinty, “Sites Feed Personal Details to New Tracking Industry,” Wall Street Journal, July 31, 2010, A1; Scott Thurm and Yukari Iwatani Kane, “Your Apps Are Watching You,” Wall Street Journal, December 18, 2010, C1.

59. Christopher W. Hart, “Beating the Market with Customer Satisfaction,” Harvard Business Review 85, no. 3 (March 2007): 30–32. 60. “Frequently Asked Questions: What Can ACSI Tell Us,” American Customer Satisfaction Index, accessed May 9, 2013, http://www.theacsi.org/index.php?option5com_content &view5article&id546&Itemid5124#what_can. 61. Dana Mattioli, “Customer Service as a Growth Engine,” Wall Street Journal, June 7, 2010, B6. 62. “2012 Working Mother 100 Best Companies,” Working Mother, accessed April 14, 2013, http://www.workingmother.com/best-company-list/129110/7271. 63. Elise Hu, “Working from Home: The End of Productivity or the Future of Work?” NPR, February 25, 2013, http://www.npr.org/blogs/alltechconsidered/2013/ 02/23/172792467/working-from-home-the-end-ofproductivity-or-the-future-of-work. 64. “Daily Report: Yahoo’s In-Office Policy Aims to Bolster Morale,” Bits, blog entry, March 6, 2013, http://bits.blogs .nytimes.com/2013/03/06/daily-report-yahoos-in-officepolicy-aims-to-bolster-morale/; and “Why Both Sides Are Wrong in the Debate Over Telecommuting,” Bloomberg.com, March 4, 2013, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/201303-04/why-both-sides-are-wrong-in-the-debate-overtelecommuting-view.html. 65. Rachel Emma Silverman and Quentin Fottrell, “The Home Office in the Spotlight,” Wall Street Journal, February 27, 2013, B6. 66. “Why Both Sides Are Wrong.” 67. Betsy McKay and Suzanne Vranica, “Firms Use Earth Day to Show Their Green Side,” Wall Street Journal, April 22, 2008, B7. 68. Gwendolyn Bounds, “Misleading Claims on ‘Green’ Labeling,” Wall Street Journal, October 26, 2010, D4. 69. Marianne Mason and Robert D. Mason, “Communicating a Green Corporate Perspective: Ideological Persuasion in the Corporate Environmental Report,” Journal of Business and Technical Communication 26, no. 4 (2012): 481, doi:10.1177/1050651912448872. 70. Susan Berfield, “Levi’s Has a New Color for Blue Jeans: Green,” Bloomberg Businessweek, October 22, 2012, 26–28; Ramit Plushnick-Masti, “Beverage Companies Investing Millions for Water Conservation,” Des Moines Register, August 11, 2012, 7B; and PepsiCo, “PepsiCo Achieves Safe Water Access Goal,” press release, March 28, 2013, http:// www.pepsico.com/PressRelease/PepsiCo-Achieves-SafeWater-Access-Goal03282013.html. 71. McDonald’s Corporation, “McDonald’s Canada: FAQs,” accessed April 14, 2013, http://www.mcdonalds.ca/ca/ en/contact_us/faq.html. 72. UPS, “Worldwide Facts,” accessed April 14, 2013, http:// www.ups.com/content/us/en/about/facts/worldwide .html. 73. Coca-Cola, “Our Company,” accessed April 14, 2013, http://www.coca-colacompany.com/our-company/. 74. Walmart, “Our Locations,” accessed April 14, 2013, http:// corporate.walmart.com/our-story/locations. 75. Thomas L. Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century, updated and expanded ed. (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2006), 14. 76. Ibid., 86. 77. Christine Uber Grosse, “Managing Communication within Virtual Intercultural Teams,” Business Communication Quarterly (2002): 22; and Linda H. Heuring, “Patients First,” HRMagazine, July 2003, 67–68.

Chapter 4

Navigating the Business Communication Environment

78. Sue Shellenbarger, “Some Companies Rethink the Telecommuting Trend,” Wall Street Journal, February 28, 2008, D1. 79. Heuring, “Patients First.” 80. Jörgen Sandberg, “Understanding Competence at Work,” Harvard Business Review 79, no. 3 (2001): 24–28. 81. “Xerox CEO: ‘If You Don’t Transform, You’re Stuck,’” NPR, May23,2012,http://www.npr.org/2012/05/23/153302563/ xerox-ceo-if-you-don-t-transform-you-re-stuck. 82. Tom Kelley and David Kelley, “Reclaim Your Creative Confidence,” Harvard Business Review 90, no. 12 (December 2012): 115–18. 83. Ibid. 84. InnoCentive, “About Us: Facts & Stats,” March 1, 2013, http://www.innocentive.com/about-innocentive/factsstats. 85. Kelley and Kelley, “Reclaim Your Creative Confidence.” 86. Linda Tischler, “A Designer Takes on His Biggest Challenge Ever,” Fast Company, February 2009, 78–83, 101. 87. L. D. DeSimone et al., “How Can Big Companies Keep the Entrepreneurial Spirit Alive?” Harvard Business Review 73, no. 6 (1995): 183–92. 88. “How Google Fuels Its Idea Factory,” BusinessWeek, May 12, 2008, 54–55.

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89. U.S. Census Bureau, “Census Bureau Reports Nation Has Nearly 350,000 Fewer Nonemployer Business Locations,” press release, June 24, 2010, http://www.census.gov/ newsroom/releases/archives/business_ownership/cb1093.html. 90. Andrew McAfee and Erik Brynjolfsson, “Big Data: The Management Revolution,” Harvard Business Review 90, no. 10 (October 2012): 62. 91. “Bigger and Bigger,” Wall Street Journal, January 22, 2013, B14. 92. L. Gordon Crovitz, “Why ‘Big Data’ Is a Big Deal,” Wall Street Journal, March 25, 2013, A15. 93. Steven Rosenbush and Michael Totty, “How Big Data Is Changing the Whole Equation for Business,” Wall Street Journal, March 11, 2013, R2. 94. McAfee and Brynjolfsson, “Big Data: The Management Revolution.” 95. Max Messmer, “Soft Skills Are Key to Advancing Your Career,” Business Credit 109, no. 4 (2007): 34. 96. Daniel Golden, “U.S. College Test Prep in China Is: [sic]” Bloomberg Businessweek, May 9, 2011, 58–63.

Planning, Composing, and Revising

Chapter Outline The Ways Good Writers Write Activities in the Composing Process Using Your Time Effectively Brainstorming, Planning, and Organizing Business Documents Writing Good Business and Administrative Documents ■

Business Styles ■ The Plain Language Movement ■ Individualized Styles

Half-Truths about Business Writing ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

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■ ■

Half-Truth 7: “Big Words Impress People.” Half-Truth 8: “Business Writing Does Not Document Sources.”

Ten Ways to Make Your Writing Easier to Read ■

As You Choose Words As You Write and Revise Sentences ■ As You Write and Revise Paragraphs ■

Organizational Preferences for Style Revising, Editing, and Proofreading ■

What to Look for When You Revise What to Look for When You Edit ■ How to Catch Typos ■

Getting and Using Feedback Using Boilerplate Readability Formulas Summary by Learning Objectives

NEWSWORTHY COMMUNICATION “Pink Slime”: Billion Dollar Words

n September 2012, Beef Products Inc. (BPI) sued ABC News for $1.2 billion over two words: PinkSlime. For more than 30 years, BPI has produced “lean, finely textured beef,” a product made from beef trimmings treated with ammonia and added as filler in some ground beef. Although cleared by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), its safety came into question from some 2011 news reports. ABC News reports described BPI’s product as pink slime, a term coined by a USDA microbiologist

in 2002. The term caught on and quickly spread through social media. The effect of pink slime was swift. Restaurant chains, grocery stores, and school cafeterias eliminated products that contained it. In 28 days, BPI’s business dropped by 80%, and the company was forced to shut three of its plants and lay off more than 700 employees. BPI’s attorney blamed the losses on ABC News: “To call a food product slime is the most pejorative term that could be imagined.

ABC’s constant repetition of it . . . had a huge impact on the consuming public.” ABC’s lawyers disagreed, calling pink slime “the sort of ‘loose, figurative, or hyperbolic language’ that courts recognize demands protection under the First Amendment.” Two small but powerful words nearly destroyed BPI’s business and could cost ABC more than a billion dollars. In preparing documents, professionals should always be careful of the wording they use and the impression it conveys to an audience.

Sources: Bill Tomson, “ABC Sued for ‘Pink Slime’ Defamation,” Wall Street Journal, September 14, 2012, B3; Daniel P. Finney, “‘Pink Slime’: Two Small Words Trigger Big Lawsuit,” Des Moines Register, September 14, 2012, 1A; Jonathan Stempel, “ABC News Sued for Defamation Over ‘Pink Slime’ Reports,” Reuters, September 13, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/09/13/us-usa-beef-pinkslime-lawsuit-idUSBRE88C0R720120913; and Martha Graybow, “ABC News Seeks Dismissal of Beef Products’ Defamation Lawsuit,” Reuters, October 31, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/11/01/ us-usa-beef-pinkslime-abclawsuit-idUSBRE8A002F20121101.

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Learning Objectives

Ethics and the Writing Process As you plan a message, ■

Identify all audiences of the message.

■

In difficult situations, seek allies in your organization and discuss your options with them.

As you compose, ■

Provide accurate and complete information.

After studying this chapter, you will know LO 5-1

Activities involved in the composing process, and how to use these activities to your advantage.

LO 5-2

Guidelines for effective word choice, sentence construction, and paragraph organization.

LO 5-3

Techniques to revise, edit, and proofread your communications.

killed performances look easy and effortless. In reality, as every dancer, musician, and athlete knows, they’re the products of hard work, hours of practice, attention to detail, and intense concentration. Like skilled performances in other arts, writing rests on a base of work.

The Ways Good Writers Write No single writing process works for all writers all of the time. However, good writers and poor writers seem to use different processes.1 Good writers are more likely to ■

Realize that the first draft can be revised.

■

Use reliable sources of material. Document when necessary.

■

Write regularly.

■

Break big jobs into small chunks.

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Warn your readers of limits or dangers in your information.

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Have clear goals focusing on purpose and audience.

■

Have several different strategies to choose from.

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Promise only what you can deliver.

■

Use rules flexibly.

■

Wait to edit until after the draft is complete.

As you revise, ■

Check to see that your language is clear to the audience and bias-free.

■

Use feedback to revise text and visuals that your audience may misunderstand.

■

Check your sources.

■

Assume that no document is confidential. E-mail documents, texts, and IMs (instant messages) can be forwarded and printed without your knowledge; both electronic and paper documents, including drafts, can be subpoenaed for court cases.

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The research also shows that good writers differ from poor writers in identifying and analyzing the initial problem more effectively, understanding the task more broadly and deeply, drawing from a wider repertoire of strategies, and seeing patterns more clearly. Good writers also are better at evaluating their own work. Thinking about the writing process and consciously adopting the processes of good writers will help you become a better writer.

Activities in the Composing Process

LO 5-1

Composing can include many activities: planning, brainstorming, gathering, organizing, writing, evaluating, getting feedback, revising, editing, and proofreading. The activities do not have to come in this order. Not every task demands all activities.

Chapter 5

Planning, Composing, and Revising

Planning ■

Analyzing the problem, defining your purposes, and analyzing the audience.

■

Brainstorming information to include in the document.

■

Gathering the information you need—from the message you’re answering, a person, printed sources, or the web.

■

Selecting the points you want to make and the examples, data, and arguments to support them.

■

Choosing a pattern of organization, making an outline, creating a list.

Writing ■

Putting words on paper or a screen. Writing can be lists, possible headings, fragmentary notes, stream-of-consciousness writing, and partial drafts.

■

Creating rough drafts.

■

Composing a formal draft.

Revising ■

Evaluating your work and measuring it against your goals and the requirements of the situation and audience. The best evaluation results from re-seeing your draft as if someone else had written it. Will your audience understand it? Is it complete? Convincing? Friendly?

■

Getting feedback from someone else. Is all the necessary information there? Is there too much information? Is your pattern of organization appropriate? Does a revision solve an earlier problem? Are there obvious mistakes?

■

Adding, deleting, substituting, or rearranging. Revision can be changes in single words or in large sections of a document.

Editing ■

Checking the draft to see that it satisfies the requirements of standard English. Here you’d correct spelling and mechanical errors and check word choice and format. Unlike revision, which can produce major changes in meaning, editing focuses on the surface of writing.

■

Proofreading the final copy to see that it’s free from typographical errors.

Note the following points about these activities: ■

The activities do not have to come in this order. Some people may gather data after writing a draft when they see that they need more specifics to achieve their purposes.

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A Writer on Writing Donald Murray, a Pulitzer-winning journalist, former editor of Time, and author of a major text on revision, says this about writing: “The myth: The writer sits down, turns on the faucet, and writing pours out—clean, graceful, correct, ready for the printer. “The reality: The writer gets something—anything—down on paper, reads it, tries it again, rereads, rewrites, again and again.” He says his writing was held back by these three false beliefs: ■

“Good writing was spontaneous writing.

■

Rewriting was punishment for failure....

■

Revision was a matter of superficial correction that forced my natural style to conform to an oldfashioned, inferior style.”

Adapted and quoted from Donald M. Murray, The Craft of Revision (Chicago: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1991), 1.

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■

You do not have to finish one activity to start another. Some writers plan a short section and write it, plan the next short section and write it, and so on through the document. Evaluating what is already written may cause a writer to do more planning or to change the original plan.

■

Most writers do not use all activities for all the documents they write. You’ll use more activities when you write more complex or difficult documents about new subjects or to audiences that are new to you.

For many workplace writers, pre-writing is not a warm-up activity to get ready to write the “real” document. It’s really a series of activities designed to gather and organize information, take notes, brainstorm with colleagues, and plan a document before writing a complete draft. And for many people, these activities do not include outlining. Traditional outlining may lull writers into a false sense of confidence about their material and organization, making it difficult for them to revise their content and structure if they deviate from the outline developed early in the process.

Using Your Time Effectively To get the best results from the time you have, spend only one-third of your time actually “writing.” Spend at least another one-third of your time analyzing the situation and your audience, gathering information, and organizing what you have to say. Spend the final third evaluating what you’ve said, revising the draft(s) to meet your purposes and the needs of the audience and the organization, editing a late draft to remove any errors in grammar and mechanics, and proofreading the final copy. Do realize, however, that different writers, documents, and situations may need different time divisions to produce quality communications, especially if documents are produced by teams. Geographic distance will add even more time to the process.

Not all writing has to be completed in office settings. Some people work better outside, in coffee shops, or from home.

Chapter 5

Planning, Composing, and Revising

Brainstorming, Planning, and Organizing Business Documents Spend significant time planning and organizing before you begin to write. The better your ideas are when you start, the fewer drafts you’ll need to produce a good document. Start by using the analysis questions from Chapter 1 to identify purpose and audience. Use the strategies described in Chapter 2 to analyze audience and identify benefits. Gather information you can use for your document. Select the points you want to make—and the examples and data to support them. Sometimes your content will be determined by the situation. Sometimes, even when it’s up to you to think of information to include in a report, you’ll find it easy to think of ideas. If ideas won’t come, try the following techniques: ■

Brainstorming. Think of all the ideas you can, without judging them. Consciously try to get at least a dozen different ideas before you stop. Good brainstorming depends on generating many ideas.

■

Freewriting.2 Make yourself write, without stopping, for 10 minutes or so, even if you must write “I will think of something soon.” At the end of 10 minutes, read what you’ve written, identify the best point in the draft, then set it aside, and write for another 10 uninterrupted minutes. Read this draft, marking anything that’s good and should be kept, and then write again for another 10 minutes. By the third session, you will probably produce several sections that are worth keeping—maybe even a complete draft that’s ready to be revised.

■

Clustering.3 Write your topic in the middle of the page and circle it. Write down the ideas the topic suggests, circling them, too. (The circles are designed to tap into the nonlinear half of your brain.) When you’ve filled the page, look for patterns or repeated ideas. Use different colored pens to group related ideas. Then use these ideas to develop your content.

■

Talking to your audiences. As research shows, talking to internal and external audiences helps writers to involve readers in the planning process and to understand the social and political relationships among readers. This preliminary work helps reduce the number of revisions needed before documents are approved.4

Thinking about the content, layout, or structure of your document can also give you ideas. For long documents, write out the headings you’ll use. For short documents, jot down key points—information to include, objections to answer, benefits to develop. For an oral presentation, a meeting, or a document with lots of visuals, try creating a storyboard, with a rectangle representing each page or unit. Draw a box with a visual for each main point. Below the box, write a short caption or label.

Writing Good Business and Administrative Documents After you have a collection of ideas, it is time to put them in a draft of your document. In Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life, writer Anne Lamott call this first draft the “down draft”: you just get your ideas down— without worrying about writing skills such as supporting detail, organization, or mechanics.5 Don’t even worry about completeness at this point.

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Overcoming Writer’s Block These actions help overcome writer’s block: 1. Prepare for writing. Collect and arrange material. Talk to people; interact with some of your audiences. The more you learn about the company, its culture, and its context, the easier it will be to write—and the better your writing will be. 2. Practice writing regularly and in moderation. Try to write almost daily. Keep sessions to a moderate length; an hour to an hour and a half is ideal for many people. 3. Talk positively to yourself: “I can do this.” “If I keep working, ideas will come.” “It doesn’t have to be perfect; I can make it better later.” 4. Talk to other people about writing. Value the feedback you get from them. Talking to other people expands your repertoire of strategies and helps you understand your writing community.

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The Communication Process

If even a very rough draft seems daunting, try finding one small piece to write. Perhaps you can write up the information in a table or create some audience benefits. Just getting something on paper will help. Lamott tells the story of her 10-year-old brother trying to write his report on birds. He had had three months to write it, it was due the next day, and he had not started: He was at the kitchen table close to tears, surrounded by binder paper and pencils and unopened books on birds, immobilized by the hugeness of the task ahead. Then my father sat down beside him, put his arm around my brother’s shoulder, and said, “Bird by bird, buddy. Just take it bird by bird.6

Lamott calls the second draft the “up draft”: you start fixing up the first draft.7 It is at this stage that you start turning your writing into professional writing. Good business and administrative writing is closer to conversation and less formal than the style of writing that has traditionally earned high marks in college essays and term papers (see Figure5.1).

Business Styles Most people have several styles of talking, which they vary instinctively depending on the audience. Good writers have several styles, too. An e-mail to your boss about the delays from a supplier will be informal, perhaps even chatty; a letter to the supplier demanding better service will be more formal. Figure 5.1

Different Levels of Style Traditional term paper style

Feature

Conversational style

Good business style

Formality

Highly informal

Conversational; sounds like a real person talking

More formal than conversation would be, but retains a human voice

Use of contractions

Many contractions

OK to use occasional contractions

Few contractions, if any

Pronouns

Uses first- and secondperson pronouns

First- and second-person pronouns kept to a minimum

Level of friendliness

Friendly

No effort to make style friendly

How personal

Personal; refers to specific circumstances of conversation

Personal; may refer to reader by name; refers to specific circumstances of audiences

Impersonal; may generally refer to readers but does not name them or refer to their circumstances

Word choice

Short, simple words; slang

Short, simple words but avoids slang

Many abstract words; scholarly, technical terms

Sentence and paragraph length

Incomplete sentences; no paragraphs

Short sentences and paragraphs

Longer sentences and paragraphs

Grammar

Can be ungrammatical

Uses standard English

Uses more formal standard English

Visual impact

Not applicable

Attention to visual impact of document

No particular attention to visual impact

Chapter 5

Planning, Composing, and Revising

Reports tend to be more formal than letters, memos, and e-mails because they may be read many years in the future by audiences the writer can barely imagine. Reports tend to avoid contractions, personal pronouns, and second person (since so many people read reports, you doesn’t have much meaning). See Chapter 18 for more about report style. Keep the following points in mind as you choose a level of formality for a specific document: ■

Use a friendly, informal style to someone you’ve talked with.

■

Avoid contractions, slang, and even minor grammatical lapses in paper documents to people you don’t know. Abbreviations are OK in e-mail messages if they’re part of the group’s culture.

■

Pay particular attention to your style when you write to people you fear or when you must give bad news. Research shows our style changes in stressful contexts. We tend to rely on nouns rather than on verbs and deaden our style when we are under stress or feel insecure.8 Confident people are more direct. Edit your writing so that you sound confident, whether you feel that way ornot.

The Plain Language Movement More and more organizations are trying to simplify their communications. In the financial world, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission’s A Plain English Handbook: How to Create Clear SEC Disclosure Documents asks for short sentences, everyday words, active voice, bullet lists, and descriptive headings. It cautions against legal and highly technical terms. Warren Buffett wrote the preface, saying the handbook was good news for him, because too often he had been unable to decipher the documents filed by public companies. He offers his own writing tip: write to a specific person. He says he pretends he is writing to his sisters when he writes his Berkshire Hathaway annual reports. The SEC has more recently applied the handbook standards to the brochures investment advisers give to clients and has urged them on hedge funds.9 In 2010, the Plain Writing Act became law. It requires all federal agencies to use clear prose that the public can readily understand. The website www.plainlanguage.gov explains the law, provides a 112-page manual to help agencies use plain language, and offers examples of good federal communication. Of course, the news is full of examples where these efforts have failed. The same negative examples, however, also show the great need for clear, simple style. A major factor in the subprime mortgage disaster that precipitated the global recession of 2008 was material written in prose so complex that even experts couldn’t understand the content. Many homeowners who signed adjustable-rate mortgages and subsequently lost their homes claim they did not understand all the consequences of what they were signing. Experts outside the mortgage business agree with the homeowners that the language was too complex for most people to understand.10 Communication consultants such as Gerard Braud urge clients to simplify their prose. He warns, “All communication affects [the] bottom line.... When a reader, listener, viewer or member of a live audience has to take even a nanosecond to decipher what you are saying because you are making it more complicated than it needs to be, you may lose that person.”11

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To Clarify or Not to Clarify Former Federal Reserve Chair Alan Greenspan was known for his lack of clarity. After one speech, a headline in the Washington Post read, “Greenspan Hints Fed May Cut Interest Rates,” while the corresponding headline in the New York Times read, “Doubt Voiced by Greenspan on a Rate Cut.” Even his wife joked that he had to propose twice before she understood what he was saying. Greenspan explained his prose style this way: “On questions that were too market-sensitive to answer, ‘no comment’ was indeed an answer. And so you construct ... the sentence in some obscure way which made it incomprehensible. But nobody was quite sure I wasn’t saying something profound.” Adapted from Greg Ip, “‘Transparent’ Vision: New Fed Chairman Hopes to Downplay Impact of His Words,” Wall Street Journal, September 6, 2006, A1; Daniel Kadlec, “5 Ways the New Fed Chairman Will Be Different,” Time, November 7, 2005, 49–50; and quote from Devin Leonard and Peter Coy, “An Interview with Alan Greenspan, Economist,” Bloomberg Businessweek, August 13, 2012, 65.

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Figure 5.2

Part 2

The Communication Process

Excerpts from Warren Buffett’s 2012 Letter to Shareholders

BERKSHIRE HATHAWAY INC.

To the Shareholders of Berkshire Hathaway Inc.: In 2012, Berkshire achieved a total gain for its shareholders of $24.1 billion. We used $1.3 billion of that to repurchase our stock, which left us with an increase in net worth of $22.8 billion for the year. The per-share book value of both our Class A and Class B stock increased by 14.4%. Over the last 48 years (that is, since present management took over), book value has grown from $19 to $114,214, a rate of 19.7% is the compounded annually.* If this ws, A number of good things happened at Berkshire last year, but let’s first get the bad news out of ne bad ow h the way. think he When the partnership I ran took control of Berkshire in 1965, I could never have dreamed that a year great t news in which we had a gain of $24.1 billion would be subpar, in terms of the comparison we present on good . e s the facing page. lize will b extua ... Cont ews to n Despite tepid U.S. growth and weakening economies throughout much of the world, our “powerhouse good even it . make pressive five” had aggregate earnings of $10.1 billion, about $600 million more than in 2011. r im humo more ... Uses y in t Todd Combs and Ted Weschler, our new investment managers, have proved to be smart, models of (plus nd integrity, helpful to Berkshire in many ways beyond portfolio management, and a perfect cultural fit. We type) a to y hit the jackpot with these two. In 2012 each outperformed the S&P 500 by double-digit margins. They left me in humilit ore sc r e d the dust as well. un int. o ... his p MidAmerican’s electric utilities serve regulated retail customers in ten states. Only one utility holding reen orts g company serves more states. In addition, we are the leader in renewables: first, from a standing start nine Supp es iv years ago, we now account for 6% of the country’s wind generation capacity. Second, when we complete t ia it in three projects now under construction, we will own about 14% of U.S. solar-generation capacity. tter tt’s le Buffe ith a w starts nancial ﬁ t r o h f s ary o m sum year. t s a the p

* All per-share figures used in this report apply to Berkshire’s A shares. Figures for the B shares are 1/1500th of those shown for A.

Source: Warren Buffett, “Letters 2012,” Berkshire Hathaway Inc., accessed March 4, 2013 , http://www.berkshirehathaway.com/letters/2012ltr.pdf.

Individualized Styles Good business style allows for individual variation. Warren Buffett is widely known for the style of his shareholder letters in the Berkshire Hathaway annual reports. He began the letters in 1966, and they have gotten better—and longer—ever since. In addition to intelligence, they are known for humor, colorful language, and originality. Carol Loomis, a senior editor at Fortune who has been the editor of Buffett’s letters since 1977, notes she makes few changes to the letters.12 Figure5.2 shows excerpts from his 2012 letter. Buffett’s direct style suggests integrity and openness. Later in the letter, Buffett adds some of the colorful prose for which he is famous: ■

“Charlie and I have again donned our safari outfits and resumed our search for elephants.”

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■

“Berkshire’s year-end employment totaled a record 288,462 (see page 106 for details), up 17,604 from last year. Our headquarters crew, however, remained unchanged at 24. No sense going crazy.”

■

“Berkshire’s ownership interest in all four companies is likely to increase in the future. Mae West had it right: ‘Too much of a good thing can be wonderful.’”

■

“If you are a CEO who has some large, profitable project you are shelving because of short-term worries, call Berkshire. Let us unburden you.”

■

“But wishing makes dreams come true only in Disney movies; it’s poison in business.”13

Half-Truths about Business Writing Many generalizations about business writing are half-truths and must be applied selectively, if at all.

Half-Truth 1: “Write as You Talk.” Most of us use a colloquial, conversational style in speech that is too informal for writing. We use slang, incomplete sentences, and even grammatical errors. Unless our speech is exceptionally fluent, “writing as we talk” can create awkward, repetitive, and badly organized prose. It’s OK to write as you talk to produce your first draft, but edit to create a good written style.

Half-Truth 2: “Never Use I.” Using I too often can make your writing sound self-centered; using it unnecessarily will make your ideas seem tentative. However, when you write about things you’ve done or said or seen, using I is both appropriate and smoother than resorting to awkward passives or phrases like this writer.

Half-Truth 3: “Never Use You.” Certainly writers should not use you in formal reports, as well as other situations where the audience is not known or you may sound too informal. But you is widely used in situations such as writing to familiar audiences like our office mates, describing audience benefits, and writing sales text.

Half-Truth 4: “Never Begin a Sentence with And or But.” Beginning a sentence with and or also makes the idea that follows seem like an afterthought. That’s OK when you want the effect of spontaneous speech in a written document, as you may in a sales letter. If you want to sound as though you have thought about what you are saying, put the also in the middle of the sentence or use another transition such as moreover or furthermore. But tells the reader that you are shifting gears and that the following point not only contrasts with but also is more important than the preceding ideas. Presenting such verbal signposts to your reader is important. Beginning a sentence with but is fine if doing so makes your paragraph read smoothly.

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Evaluating “Rules” about Writing Some “rules” are grammatical conventions. For example, standard edited English requires that each sentence have a subject and verb, and that the subject and verb agree. Business writing normally demands standard grammar, but exceptions exist. Promotional materials such as brochures, advertisements, and sales letters may use sentence fragments to mimic the effect of speech. Other “rules” may be conventions adopted by an organization so that its documents will be consistent. For example, a company might decide to capitalize job titles (e.g., Production Manager) even though grammar doesn’t require the capitals. Still other “rules” are attempts to codify “what sounds good.” “Never use I” and “use big words” are examples of this kind of “rule.” To evaluate these “rules,” you must consider your audience, purposes, and situation. If you want the effect produced by an impersonal style and polysyllabic words, use them. But use them only when you want the distancing they produce.

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Building a Better Style To improve your style, ■

Tell someone what you really mean. Then write the words.

■

Read your draft out loud to someone sitting about three feet away—about as far away as you’d sit in casual conversation. If the words sound awkward, they’ll seem awkward to a reader, too.

■

Ask someone else to read your draft out loud. Readers stumble because the words on the page aren’t what they expect to see. The places where that person stumbles are places where your writing can be better.

■

Read widely and write a lot. ■

Use the 10 techniques in LO 5-2 to polish your style.

The Communication Process

Half-Truth 5: “Never End a Sentence with a Preposition.” Prepositions are those useful little words that indicate relationships: with, in, under, to, at. In job application letters, business reports, and important presentations, avoid ending sentences with prepositions. Most other messages are less formal; it’s OK to end an occasional sentence with a preposition. Noting exceptions to the rule, Sir Winston Churchill famously scolded an editor who had presumptuously corrected a sentence ending with a preposition, “This is the kind of impertinence up with which I will not put.”14 Analyze your audience and the situation, and use the language that you think will get the bestresults.

Half-Truth 6: “Never Have a Sentence with More than 20Words, or a Paragraph with More than 8 Lines.” While it is true that long sentences and paragraphs may sometimes be hard to read, such is not always the case. Long sentences with parallel clauses (see pages 137–38) may be quite clear, and a longer paragraph with a bulleted list may be quite readable. Your audience, purpose, and context should guide length decisions. Instructions for complicated new software may need shorter sentences and paragraphs, but an instruction paragraph on the six criteria for legitimate travel expenses may be longer than eight lines and still quite clear. If your audience, however, believes in rigid guidelines, then you should follow them also.

Half-Truth 7: “Big Words Impress People.” Learning an academic discipline requires that you master its vocabulary. After you get out of school, however, no one will ask you to write just to prove that you understand something. Instead, you’ll be asked to write or speak to people who need the information you have. Sometimes you may want the sense of formality or technical expertise that big words create. But much of the time, big words just distance you from your audience and increase the risk of miscommunication. If you feel you need to use big words, make sure you use them correctly. When people misuse big words, they look foolish.

Half-Truth 8: “Business Writing Does Not Document Sources.” It is true that much business writing does not use sources, and that many businesses frequently use their own boilerplate (see page 147). However, if you borrow the words or ideas of someone outside your business, you must acknowledge your source or you will be plagiarizing. Even inside a business, if the source is not widely known or the material was particularly good or controversial, it is common to acknowledge the source. See Chapter 18 for help on documentation.

Ten Ways to Make Your Writing Easier to Read LO 5-2 Direct, simple writing is easier to read. One study tested two versions of a memo report. The “high-impact” version was written with the “bottom line” (the purpose of the report) in the first paragraph, simple sentences in normal

Chapter 5

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word order, active verbs, concrete language, short paragraphs, headings and lists, and first- and second-person pronouns. The high-impact version took 22% less time to read. Readers said they understood the report better, and tests showed that they really did.15 Another study showed that high-impact instructions were more likely to be followed.16 Building a good style takes energy and effort, but it’s well worth the work. Good style can make every document more effective; good style can help make you the good writer so valuable to every organization.

As You Choose Words The best word depends on context: the situation, your purposes, your audience, the words you have already used.

1. Use words that are accurate, appropriate, and familiar. Accurate words mean what you want to say. Appropriate words convey the attitudes you want and fit well with the other words in your document. Familiar words are easy to read and understand. Sometimes choosing the accurate word is hard. Most of us have word pairs that confuse us. Grammarian Richard Lederer tells Toastmasters that these 10 pairs are the ones you are most likely to see or hear confused.17 Affect/Effect Among/Between Amount/Number Compose/Comprise Different from/Different than

Disinterested/Uninterested Farther/Further Fewer/Less Imply/Infer Lay/Lie

For help using the pairs correctly, see Appendix B. Some meanings are negotiated as we interact with another person, attempting to communicate. Individuals are likely to have different ideas about valueladen words such as fair or rich. Some word choices have profound implications. ■

Because Super Storm Sandy was not labeled a hurricane by the National Weather Service or the National Hurricane Center (technically, it made landfall as a posttropical depression), some officials and residents did not take it seriously enough, leading to damaging inaction. But once it hit, officials such as New Jersey’s governor hastened to keep it labeled as a post-tropical depression so their residents could get more insurance money (many insurance policies limit hurricane payments).18

■

Many hospitals are labeled as charities, a status that enables them to avoid millions of dollars in taxes. A survey of charity hospitals in one state found that in one-third of them less than 1% of expenditures went to charity care.19

■

In 2012, the American Psychiatric Association approved the fifth edition of its diagnostic manual for mental disorders, dropping and adding some categories, changes that will impact the billions of dollars spent on mental health insurance payments and subsidized treatments.20

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Can We Predict Earthquakes? Seismologists define an earthquake prediction as a statement specifying exactly when and where an earthquake will occur: an earthquake will hit San Francisco July 30. They define a forecast as a probability statement, usually over a lengthy time period: over the next 30 years, the probability of a major earthquake in the San Francisco area is 67%. The U.S. Geological Survey states on its website that no scientist has ever predicted a major earthquake, nor does the Survey expect that fact to change in the foreseeable future. However, scientists can forecast earthquakes. Adapted from Nate Silver, The Signal and the Noise: Why So Many Predictions Fail—But Some Don’t (New York: Penguin, 2012), 148–49.

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Bribery Is Hard to Define When companies conduct international commerce, the difference between bribery and routine business sometimes has been hard to define. U.S. officials have collected billions of dollars in fines that attest to that difficulty. Now U.S. officials have provided a 130-page document giving specific advice for companies, particularly for gifts, travel, and entertainment. Small gifts or promotional items, taxi fare, and cups of coffee are fine. On the other hand, a $12,000 birthday trip, a $10,000 entertainment tab all for one official, and a sightseeing trip to another country are all bribery. Adapted from Joe Palazzolo and Christopher M. Matthews, “Bribery Laws Dos and Don’ts,” Wall Street Journal, November 15, 2012, B1.

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The Communication Process

As the last example indicates, some word choices have major health repercussions. Smokers have sued tobacco companies for duping them into believing that “light” cigarettes were less harmful. Recall, when used in warnings about defective pacemakers and defibrillators, causes patients to ask for replacements, even though the replacement surgery is riskier than the defective device. For this reason, some physician groups prefer safety advisory or safety alert.21

Accurate Denotations To be accurate, a word’s denotation must match the meaning the writer wishes to convey. Denotation is a word’s literal or dictionary meaning. Most common words in English have more than one denotation. The word pound, for example, means, or denotes, a unit of weight, a place where stray animals are kept, a unit of money in the British system, and the verb to hit. Coca-Cola spends millions each year to protect its brand names so that Coke will denote only that brand and not just any cola drink. When two people use the same word or phrase to mean, or denote, different things, bypassing occurs. For example, a large mail-order drug company notifies clients by e-mail when their prescription renewals get stopped because the doctor has not verified the prescription. Patients are advised to call their doctors and remind them to verify. However, the company’s website posts a sentence telling clients that the prescription is being processed. The drug company means the renewal is in the system, waiting for the doctor’s verification. The patients believe the doctor has checked in and the renewal is moving forward. The confusion results in extra phone calls to the company’s customer service number, delayed prescriptions, and general customer dissatisfaction. Problems also arise when writers misuse words. Three major divisions of Stiners Corporation are poised to strike out in opposite directions.

(Three different directions can’t be opposite each other.)

Stiners has grown dramatically over the past five years, largely by purchasing many smaller, desperate companies.

This latter statement probably did not intend to be so frank. More likely, the writer relied on a computer’s spell checker, which accepted desperate for disparate, meaning “fundamentally different from one another.”

Appropriate Connotations Words are appropriate when their connotations, that is, their emotional associations or colorings, convey the attitude you want. A great many words carry connotations of approval or disapproval, disgust or delight. Consider firm or obstinate, flexible or wishy-washy. Some businesses offer a cash discount; you rarely hear of a credit surcharge. Some companies offer an insurance discount if their employees follow specified good-health practices; the employees who do not follow those practices are paying a penalty, although it is not publicized that way. A supervisor can “tell the truth” about a subordinate’s performance and yet write either a positive or a negative performance appraisal, based on the connotations of the words in the appraisal. Consider an employee who pays close attention to details. A positive appraisal might read, “Terry is a meticulous team member who takes care of details that others sometimes ignore.” But

Chapter 5

Planning, Composing, and Revising

the same behavior might be described negatively: “Terry is hung up on trivial details.” Advertisers carefully choose words with positive connotations. ■

In this youth-conscious society, hearing aids become personal communication assistants.22

■

Expensive cars are never used; instead, they’re pre-owned, experienced, or even previously adored.23

■

Insurers emphasize what you want to protect (your home, your car, your life), rather than the losses you are insuring against (fire damage, auto accident, death).

Words may also connote categories. Some show status. Both salesperson and sales representative are nonsexist job titles. But the first sounds like a clerk in a store; the second suggests someone selling important items to corporate customers. Some words connote age: adorable generally connotes young children, not adults. Other words, such as handsome or pretty, connote gender. Connotations change over time. The word charity had acquired such negative connotations by the 19th century that people began to use the term welfare instead. Now, welfare has acquired negative associations. Most states have public assistance programs instead.

Ethical Implications of Word Choice How positively can we present something and still be ethical? We have the right to package our ideas attractively, but we have the responsibility to give the public or our superiors all the information they need to make decisions. Word choices have ethical implications in technical contexts as well. When scientists refer to 100-year floods, they mean a flood so big that it has a 1% chance of happening in any given year. However, a “1% annual chance flood” is awkward and has not become standard usage. On the other hand, many nonscientists believe a 100-year flood will happen only once every hundred years. After a 100-year flood swamped the Midwest in 1993, many people moved back into flood-prone homes; some even dropped their flood insurance. Unfortunately, both actions left them devastated by a second 100-year flood in 2008.24 Perhaps one of the best-known examples of ethical implications deals with the interrogation technique of waterboarding. President George W. Bush’s attorney general said waterboarding was not torture; President Obama’s attorney general said it was.25 Familiar Words Use familiar words, words that are in almost everyone’s vocabulary. Use the word that most exactly conveys your meaning, but whenever you can choose between two words that mean the same thing, use the shorter, more common one. Some writers mistakenly believe that using long, learned words makes them seem smart. However, experimental evidence shows the opposite is usually true: needlessly pretentious diction is generally taken as a sign of lower intelligence—and causes low credibility.26 Try to use specific, concrete words. They’re easier to understand and remember.27 The following list gives a few examples of short, simple alternatives: Formal and stuffy ameliorate

Short and simple improve

commence

begin

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How Local Is “Local”? Some consumers prefer to purchase food produced locally on the assumption that the food will be fresher and contain fewer chemicals. But what does local mean? One woman in Washington, D.C., found “local” strawberries whose packaging indicated they were actually grown in California. Some states and retailers have established definitions for what qualifies as locally grown: Vermont says within state or 30miles of sales place; Walmart says local means produce came from the state where it is being sold. However, definitions vary widely, and, given the diversity of crops and their growing regions, a nationwide standard is unlikely. So, despite the economic boon to retailers of labeling a product as locally produced, the advantage to consumers is not always clear. Adapted from “Locally Grown Produce? It All Depends on How You Define It,” Des Moines Register, April 2, 2011, 8A.

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DUTA [Don’t Use That Acronym] Used properly, acronyms can be convenient. But acronyms can fail when the intended audience doesn’t understand what an acronym stands for or when a single acronym has multiple meanings, sometimes even within the same organization. To look up the definition of an acronym, go to www .AcronymFinder.com, an online acronym dictionary used by businesses, lawyers, students, and savvy writers seeking acronym definitions. The site has over 1 million visitors and 4 million page views a month. In May 2013 the site listed more than 1 million acronyms, including 93 SAFEs, 152 FASTs, and 218 CATs. No wonder acronyms can be confusing. Adapted from Thomas Catan, “To Understand Washington Ads, You’ve Got to Be a Code Breaker,” Wall Street Journal, March 7, 2011, A1; and http:// www. AcronymFinder.com, accessed May 11, 2013.

The Communication Process

Formal and stuffy

Short and simple

enumerate

list

finalize

finish, complete

prioritize

rank

utilize

use

viable option

choice

There are some exceptions to the general rule that “shorter is better.” ■

Use a long word if it is the only word that expresses your meaning exactly.

■

Use a long word—or phrase—if it is more familiar than a short word: a word in another language for a geographic place or area is better than exonym.

■

Use a long word if its connotations are more appropriate. Exfoliate is better than scrape off dead skin cells.

■

Use a long word if your audience prefers it.

2. Use technical jargon sparingly; eliminate business jargon. There are two kinds of jargon. The first is the specialized terminology of a technical field. Many public figures enjoy mocking this kind of jargon. Even the Wall Street Journal does its share, mocking quotes like this one from a computer industry press release announcing a new “market offering”: [The] offerings are leading-edge service configuration assurance capabilities that will help us to rapidly deploy high-demand IP services, such as level 3 virtual private networks, multi-cast and quality of service over our IP/MPLS network.28

A job application letter is one of the few occasions when it’s desirable to use technical jargon: using the technical terminology of the reader’s field helps suggest that you’re a peer who also is competent in that field. In other kinds of messages, use technical jargon only when the term is essential and known to the reader. If a technical term has a “plain English” equivalent, use the simplerterm. The second kind of jargon is the businessese that some writers still use: as per your request, enclosed please find, please do not hesitate. None of the words in this second category of jargon are necessary. Indeed, some writers call these terms deadwood, since they are no longer living words. If any of the terms in the first column of Figure5.3 appear in your writing, replace them with more modern language.

As You Write and Revise Sentences At the sentence level, you can do many things to make your writing easy to read.

3. Use active voice most of the time. “Who does what” sentences with active voice make your writing more forceful. A verb is in active voice if the grammatical subject of the sentence does the action the verb describes. A verb is in passive voice if the subject is acted upon. Passive voice is usually made up of a form of the verb to be plus a past participle. Passive has nothing to do with past. Passive voice can be past, present, or future:

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Figure 5.3

Planning, Composing, and Revising

133

Getting Rid of Business Jargon

Instead of

Use

Because

At your earliest convenience

The date you need a response

If you need it by a deadline, say so. It may never be convenient to respond.

As per your request; 65 miles per hour

As you requested; 65 miles an hour

Per is a Latin word for by or for each. Use per only when the meaning is correct; avoid mixing English and Latin.

Enclosed please find

Enclosed is; Here is

An enclosure isn’t a treasure hunt. If you put something in the envelope, the reader will find it.

Hereto, herewith

Omit

Omit legal jargon.

Please be advised; Please be informed

Omit—simply start your response

You don’t need a preface. Go ahead and start.

Please do not hesitate

Omit

Omit negative words.

Pursuant to

According to; or omit

Pursuant does not mean after. Omit legal jargon in any case.

This will acknowledge receipt of your letter.

Omit—start your response

If you answer a letter, the reader knows you got it.

Trusting this is satisfactory, we remain

Omit

Eliminate-ing endings. When you are through, stop.

were received

(in the past)

is recommended

(in the present)

will be implemented

(in the future)

To spot a passive voice, find the verb. If the verb describes something that the grammatical subject is doing, the verb is in active voice. If the verb describes something that is being done to the grammatical subject, the verb is in passive voice. Active Voice The customer received 500 widgets.

Passive Voice Five hundred widgets were received by the customer.

I recommend this method.

This method is recommended by me.

The state agencies will implement the program.

The program will be implemented by the state agencies.

To change from passive voice to active voice, you must make the agent the new subject. If no agent is specified in the sentence, you must supply one to make the sentence active. Passive Voice The request was approved by the plant manager.

Active Voice The plant manager approved the request.

A decision will be made next month. No agent in sentence.

The committee will decide next month.

A letter will be sent informing the customer of the change. No agent in sentence.

[You] Send the customer a letter informing her about the change.

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Passive voice has at least three disadvantages:

Words for Selling Your House Trying to sell your house? Choose your words carefully. Experts who study the effect of words in house descriptions have found that certain words and phrases sell houses faster. For example, a beautiful house sells 15% faster; a house in move-in condition will sell 12% faster. Studies also suggest that mentioning specific features of the home, such as granite, maple, or fireplace, will also help raise the selling price. Be careful, though. Starter home will shorten selling time but also lower the selling price. Handyman special will shorten selling time by 50% but also lower the selling price by 30%. Adapted from “A Motivated Seller by Any Other Name...,” Wall Street Journal, October 5, 2012, M4.

The Communication Process

■

If all the information in the original sentence is retained, passive voice makes the sentence longer and thus more time consuming to understand.29

■

If the agent is omitted, it’s not clear who is responsible for doing the action.

■

Using much passive voice, especially in material that has a lot of big words, can make the writing boring and pompous.

Passive voice is desirable in these situations: a. Use passive voice to emphasize the object receiving the action, not the agent. Your order was shipped November 15.

The customer’s order, not the shipping clerk, is important. b. Use passive voice to provide coherence within a paragraph. A sentence is easier to read if “old” information comes at the beginning of a sentence. When you have been discussing a topic, use the word again as your subject even if that requires passive voice. The bank made several risky loans in the late 1990s. These loans were written off as “uncollectible” in 2001.

Using loans as the subject of the second sentence provides a link between the two sentences, making the paragraph as a whole easier to read. c. Use passive voice to avoid assigning blame. The order was damaged during shipment.

Active voice would require the writer to specify who damaged the order. The passive voice is more tactful here. According to PlainLanguage.gov, changing writing to active voice is the most powerful change that can be made to government documents.30 But even the self-proclaimed prescriptivist style editor Bill Walsh, a copy chief at the Washington Post, admits that sometimes passive voice is necessary—although not as often as many writers think.31

4. Use verbs—not nouns—to carry the weight of your sentence. Put the weight of your sentence in the verb to make your sentences more forceful and up to 25% easier to read.32 When the verb is a form of the verb to be, revise the sentence to use a more forceful verb. Weak:

The financial advantage of owning this equipment instead of leasing it is 10% after taxes.

Better: Owning this equipment rather than leasing it will save us 10% after taxes.

Nouns ending in -ment, -ion, and -al often hide verbs. Weak make an adjustment make a payment make a decision reach a conclusion take into consideration

Better adjust pay decide conclude consider

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make a referral provide assistance

Planning, Composing, and Revising

refer assist

Use verbs to present the information more forcefully. Weak:

We will perform an investigation of the problem.

Better: We will investigate the problem. Weak:

Selection of a program should be based on the client’s needs.

Better: Select the program that best fits the client’s needs.

5. Eliminate wordiness. Writing is wordy if the same idea can be expressed in fewer words. Unnecessary words increase writing time, bore your reader, and make your meaning more difficult to follow, since the reader must hold all the extra words in mind while trying to understand your meaning. Good writing is concise, but it may still be lengthy. Concise writing may be long because it is packed with ideas. In Chapter 3, we saw that revisions to create you-attitude and positive emphasis and to develop benefits were frequently longer than the originals because the revision added information not given in the original. Sometimes you may be able to look at a draft and see immediately how to condense it. When the solution isn’t obvious, try the following strategies to condense your writing: a. Eliminate words that add nothing. b. Combine sentences to eliminate unnecessary words. c. Put the meaning of your sentence into the subject and verb to cut the number of words. You eliminate unnecessary words to save the reader’s time, not simply to see how few words you can use. You aren’t writing a telegram, so keep the little words that make sentences complete. (Incomplete sentences are fine in lists where all the items are incomplete.) The following examples show how to use these methods. a. Eliminate words that add nothing. Cut words if the idea is already clear from other words in the sentence. Substitute single words for wordy phrases. Wordy: Keep this information on file for future reference. Better: Keep this information for reference. or:

File this information.

Wordy: The reason we want to see changing our hardware manager to Hanson’s is because Hanson’s is able to collect hardware from a larger number of vendors than our current supplier. Better: We recommend changing our hardware manager to Hanson’s for their larger number of vendors.

Phrases beginning with of, which, and that can often be shortened. Wordy: the question of most importance Better: the most important question Wordy: the estimate which is enclosed Better: the enclosed estimate Wordy: We need to act on the suggestions that our customers offer us. Better: We need to act on customer suggestions.

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Internet Influence on Conciseness The Internet has changed the way we read. Author Christopher Johnson says the “sad irony is that we often waste our time clicking around because we don’t want to waste our attention. We don’t always give it willingly, but it can be captured.” That capturing is done through “microstyle,” concise messages that are short, to the point, and attention-grabbing. Johnson reminds us that in these micro-messages word choice is incredibly important, in anything from slogans, like Target’s “Expect more, pay less,” to new compound words like YouTube. Johnson advises writers that to make a small message a success, it should display careful word choice orhumor. Adapted from Daniel Akst, “The Soul of Brevity,” Wall Street Journal, August 6–7, 2011, C10.

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Sentences beginning with There are or It is can often be tighter.

Meaningless Sentences

Wordy: There are three reasons for the success of the project.

Editor Bill Walsh of the Washington Post gives these examples of meaningless sentences. ■

A donation of your car, truck or boat is taxdeductible to the maximum extent of the law.

In other words, you’re allowed to deduct it as much as you’re allowed to deduct it. Good news: Your toenail clippings are also deductible to the maximum extent of the law. ■

You can use this scholarship at any participating school in the world.

I have no doubt that this is true. But it raises one major question.... ■

Area schools will be back in session Monday, disappointing thousands of children who would rather stay home and watch John Wayne movies.

No, they wouldn’t. (How old are you, anyway?) Quoted from Bill Walsh, The Elephants of Style: A Trunkload of Tips on the Big Issues and Gray Areas of Contemporary American English (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004), 140, 149.

Figure 5.4 Cut the following words

The Communication Process

Tighter: Three reasons explain the project’s success. Wordy: It is the case that college graduates earn more money. Tighter: College graduates earn more money.

Check your draft. If you find these phrases, or any of the unnecessary words shown in Figure5.4, eliminate them. b. Combine sentences to eliminate unnecessary words. In addition to saving words, combining sentences focuses the reader’s attention on key points, makes your writing sound more sophisticated, and sharpens the relationship between ideas, thus making your writing more coherent. Wordy: I conducted this survey by telephone on Sunday, April 21. I questioned two groups of upperclass students—male and female—who, according to the Student Directory, were still living in the dorms. The purpose of this survey was to find out why some upperclass students continue to live in the dorms even though they are no longer required by the University to do so. I also wanted to find out if there were any differences between male and female upperclass students in their reasons for choosing to remain in the dorms. Tighter: On Sunday, April 21, I phoned upperclass men and women living in the dorms to find out (1) why they continue to live in the dorms even though they are no longer required to do so, and (2) whether men and women gave the same reasons.

c. Put the meaning of your sentence into the subject and verb to cut the number of words. Put the core of your meaning into the subject and verb of your main clause. Wordy: The reason we are recommending the computerization of this process is because it will reduce the time required to obtain data and will give us more accurate data. Better: Computerizing the process will give us more accurate data more quickly. Wordy: The purpose of this letter is to indicate that if we are unable to mutually benefit from our seller/buyer relationship, with satisfactory material and satisfactory payment, then we have no alternative other than to sever the relationship. In other words, unless the account is handled in 45 days, we will have to change our terms to a permanent COD basis.

Words to Cut

Cut redundant words

Substitute a single word for a wordy phrase

quite

a period of three months

at the present time

now

really

during the course of the negotiations

due to the fact that

because

very

during the year of 2013

in order to

maximum possible

in the event that

past experience

in the near future

soon (or give the date)

plan in advance

on a regular basis

regularly

refer back

prior to the start of

before

the color blue

until such time as

until

the month of November true facts

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Better: A good buyer/seller relationship depends upon satisfactory material and payment. You can continue to charge your purchases from us only if you clear your present balance in 45 days.

6. Vary sentence length and sentence structure. Readable prose mixes sentence lengths and varies sentence structure. A short sentence (under 10 words) can add punch to your prose. Long sentences (over 30 words) can be danger signs. The first-place Golden Gobbledygook Award goes to a 1,000-word sentence in a legal document filed in Oklahoma.33 You can vary sentence patterns in several ways. First, you can mix simple, compound, and complex sentences. (See Appendix B for more information on sentence structure.) Simple sentences have one main clause: We will open a new store this month.

Compound sentences have two main clauses joined with and, but, or, or another conjunction. Compound sentences work best when the ideas in the two clauses are closely related. We have hired staff, and they will complete their training next week. We wanted to have a local radio station broadcast from the store during its grand opening, but the DJs were already booked.

Complex sentences have one main and one subordinate clause; they are good for showing logical relationships. When the stores open, we will have specials in every department. Because we already have a strong customer base in the northwest, we expect the new store to be just as successful as the store in the City Center Mall.

You can also vary sentences by changing the order of elements. Normally the subject comes first. We will survey customers later in the year to see whether demand warrants a third store on campus.

To create variety, occasionally begin the sentence with some other part of the sentence. Later in the year, we will survey customers to see whether demand warrants a third store on campus.

Use these guidelines for sentence length and structure: ■

Always edit sentences for conciseness. Even a short sentence can be wordy.

■

When your subject matter is complicated or full of numbers, make a special effort to keep sentences short.

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Names Influence Eating Behaviors Can renaming a food make it more appealing? Can the name make you eat more? Well, yes, especially if you’redieting. Researchers called Jelly Belly candies “fruit chews” or “candy chews.” Dieters rated “candy chews” as being less tasty than “fruit chews.” In addition, dieters consumed 70% more when the candies were called “fruit chews” than they did when the candies were called “candychews.” Adapted from Christopher Shea, “Salad Is a Magic Word,” Wall Street Journal, April 23–24, 2011, C4.

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■

Use longer sentences to show how ideas are linked to each other; to avoid a series of short, choppy sentences; and to reduce repetition.

■

Group the words in long and medium-length sentences into chunks that the reader can process quickly.

■

When you use a long sentence, keep the subject and verb close together.

Let’s see how to apply the last three principles. Use long sentences to show how ideas are linked to each other; to avoid a series of short, choppy sentences; and to reduce repetition. The following sentence is hard to read not simply because it is long but because it is shapeless. Just cutting it into a series of short, choppy sentences doesn’t help. The best revision uses medium-length sentences to show the relationship betweenideas. Too long:

It should also be noted in the historical patterns presented in the summary, that though there were delays in January and February which we realized were occurring, we are now back where we were about a year ago, and that we are not off line in our collect receivables as compared to last year at this time, but we do show a considerable over-budget figure because of an ultraconservative goal on the receivable investment.

Choppy:

There were delays in January and February. We knew about them at the time. We are now back where we were about a year ago. The summary shows this. Our present collect receivables are in line with last year’s. However, they exceed the budget. The reason they exceed the budget is that our goal for receivable investment was very conservative.

Better:

As the summary shows, although there were delays in January and February (of which we were aware), we have now regained our position of a year ago. Our present collect receivables are in line with last year’s, but they exceed the budget because our goal for receivable investment was very conservative.

Group the words in long and medium-length sentences into chunks. The “better” revision above has seven chunks. At 27 and 24 words, respectively, these sentences aren’t short, but they’re readable because no chunk is longer than 10 words. Any sentence pattern will get boring if it is repeated sentence after sentence. Use different sentence patterns—different kinds and lengths of chunks—to keep your prose interesting. Keep the subject and verb close together. Often you can move the subject and verb closer together if you put the modifying material in a list at the end of the sentence. For maximum readability, present the list vertically. Hard to read:

Movements resulting from termination, layoffs and leaves, recalls and reinstates, transfers in, transfers out, promotions in, promotions out, and promotions within are presently documented through the Payroll Authorization Form.

Better:

The Payroll Authorization Form documents the following movements: ■

Termination

■

Layoffs and leaves

■

Recalls and reinstates

■

Transfers in and out

■

Promotions in, out, and within

7. Use parallel structure. Parallel structure puts words, phrases, or clauses in the same grammatical and logical form. In the following faulty example, by reviewing is a gerund, while note is an imperative verb. Make the sentence parallel by using both gerunds or both imperatives.

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Faulty:

Errors can be checked by reviewing the daily exception report or note the number of errors you uncover when you match the lading copy with the file copy of the invoice.

Parallel:

Errors can be checked by reviewing the daily exception report or by noting the number of errors you uncover when you match the lading copy with the file copy of the invoice.

Also parallel:

To check errors, note 1. The number of items on the daily exception report. 2. The number of errors discovered when the lading copy and the file copy are matched.

Note that a list in parallel structure must fit grammatically into the umbrella sentence that introduces the list. Faulty:

The following suggestions can help employers avoid bias in job interviews: 1. Base questions on the job description. 2. Questioning techniques. 3. Selection and training of interviewers.

Parallel:

The following suggestions can help employers avoid bias in job interviews: 1. Base questions on the job description. 2. Ask the same questions of all applicants. 3. Select and train interviewers carefully.

Also parallel:

Employers can avoid bias in job interviews by 1. Basing questions on the job description. 2. Asking the same questions of all applicants. 3. Selecting and training interviewers carefully.

Words must also be logically parallel. In the following faulty example, juniors, seniors, and athletes are not three separate groups. The revision groups words into non-overlapping categories. Faulty:

I interviewed juniors and seniors and athletes.

Parallel:

I interviewed juniors and seniors. In each rank, I interviewed athletes and non-athletes.

Parallel structure is a powerful device for making your writing tighter, smoother, and more forceful. Faulty:

Parallel:

Our customers receive these benefits: ■

Use tracking information.

■

Our products let them scale the software to their needs.

■

The customer can always rely on us.

Our customers receive these benefits: ■

Tracking information

■

Scalability

■

Reliability

8. Put your readers in your sentences. Use second-person pronouns (you) rather than third-person (he, she, one) to give your writing more impact. You is both singular and plural; it can refer to a single person or to every member of your organization. Third-person:

Funds in a participating employee’s account at the end of each six months will automatically be used to buy more stock unless a “Notice of Election Not to Exercise Purchase Rights” form is received from the employee.

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Second-person:

Once you begin to participate, funds in your account at the end of each six months will automatically be used to buy more stock unless you turn in a “Notice of Election Not to Exercise Purchase Rights” form.

Be careful to use you only when it refers to your reader. Incorrect:

My visit with the outside sales rep showed me that your schedule can change quickly.

Correct:

My visit with the outside sales rep showed me that schedules can change quickly.

As You Write and Revise Paragraphs Paragraphs are visual and logical units. Use them to chunk your sentences.

9. Begin most paragraphs with topic sentences. A good paragraph has unity; that is, it discusses only one idea, or topic. The topic sentence states the main idea and provides a scaffold to structure your document. Your writing will be easier to read if you make the topic sentence explicit and put it at the beginning of the paragraph.34 Hard to read (no topic sentence):

In fiscal 2014, the company filed claims for refund of federal income taxes of $3,199,000 and interest of $969,000 paid as a result of an examination of the company’s federal income tax returns by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) for the years 2010 through 2012. It is uncertain what amount, if any, may ultimately be recovered.

Better (paragraph starts with topic sentence):

The company and the IRS disagree about whether the company is responsible for back taxes. In fiscal 2014, the company filed claims for a refund of federal income taxes of $3,199,000 and interest of $969,000 paid as a result of an examination of the company’s federal income tax returns by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) for the years 2010 through 2012. It is uncertain what amount, if any, may ultimately be recovered.

A good topic sentence forecasts the structure and content of the paragraph. Plan B also has economic advantages. (Prepares the reader for a discussion of B’s economic advantages.) We had several personnel changes in June. (Prepares the reader for a list of the month’s terminations and hires.) Employees have complained about one part of our new policy on parental leaves. (Prepares the reader for a discussion of the problem.)

When the first sentence of a paragraph is not the topic sentence, readers who skim may miss the main point. If the paragraph does not have a topic sentence, you will need to write one. If you can’t think of a single sentence that serves as an “umbrella” to cover every sentence, the paragraph probably lacks unity. To solve the problem, either split the paragraph or eliminate the sentences that digress from the main point.

10. Use transitions to link ideas. Transition words and sentences signal the connections between ideas to the reader. Transitions tell whether the next sentence continues the previous thought or starts a new idea; they can tell whether

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Figure 5.5

Planning, Composing, and Revising

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Transition Words and Phrases

To show addition or continuation of the same idea and also first, second, third in addition likewise similarly To introduce another important item

To introduce an example for example (e.g.) for instance indeed to illustrate namely specifically To contrast in contrast on the other hand or

furthermore moreover

To show that the contrast is more important than the previous idea but however nevertheless on the contrary To show cause and effect as a result because consequently for this reason therefore

the idea that comes next is more or less important than the previous thought. Figure5.5 lists some of the most common transition words and phrases. These sentences use transition words and phrases: Kelly wants us to switch the contract to Ames Cleaning, and I agree with her. (continuing the same idea) Kelly wants us to switch the contract to Ames Cleaning, but I prefer Ross Commercial. (contrasting opinions) As a result of our differing views, we will be visiting both firms. (showing cause and effect)

These are transitional sentences: Now that we have examined the advantages of using Ames Cleaning, let’s look at potential disadvantages. (shows movement between two sections of evaluation) These pros and cons show us three reasons we should switch to Ross Commercial. (shows movement away from evaluation sections; forecasts the three reasons)

Organizational Preferences for Style Different organizations and bosses may legitimately have different ideas about what constitutes good writing. If the style doesn’t seem reasonable, ask. Often the documents that end up in files aren’t especially good; later, other workers may find these and copy them, thinking they represent a corporate standard. Bosses may in fact prefer better writing. Recognize that a style may serve other purposes than communication. An abstract, hard-to-read style may help a group forge its own identity. Researchers James Suchan and Ronald Dulek have shown that Navy officers preferred a passive, impersonal style because they saw themselves as followers. An aircraft company’s engineers saw wordiness as the verbal equivalent of backup systems. A backup is redundant but essential to safety, because parts and systems do fail.35

Revising, Editing, and Proofreading

LO 5-3

Once you have your document written, you need to polish it. A popular myth about revising is that Abraham Lincoln wrote the Gettysburg address, perhaps the most famous of all American presidential speeches, on the back of an envelope as he traveled by train to the battlefield’s dedication. The reality is that Lincoln wrote at least a partial draft of the speech

To show time after as before in the future next then until when while To summarize or end finally in conclusion

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before leaving for the trip and continued to revise it up to the morning of its delivery. Furthermore, the speech was on a topic he passionately believed in, one he had been pondering for years.36 Like Lincoln, good writers work on their drafts; they make their documents better by judicious revising, editing, and proofreading. ■

Revising means making changes in content, organization, and tone that will better satisfy your purposes and your audience.

■

Editing means making surface-level changes that make the document grammatically correct.

■

Proofreading means checking to be sure the document is free from typographical errors.

What to Look for When You Revise When you’re writing to a new audience or have to solve a particularly difficult problem, plan to revise the draft at least three times. The first time, look for content and clarity: Have I said enough and have I said it clearly? The second time, check the organization and layout: Have I presented my content so it can be easily absorbed? Finally, check style and tone: Have I used you-attitude? The Thorough Revision Checklist summarizes the questions you should ask. Often you’ll get the best revision by setting aside your draft, getting a blank page or screen, and redrafting. This strategy takes advantage of the thinking you did on your first draft without locking you into the sentences in it. As you revise, be sure to read the document through from start to finish. This is particularly important if you’ve composed in several sittings or if you’ve used text from other documents. Such drafts tend to be choppy, repetitious, or inconsistent. You may need to add transitions, cut repetitive parts, or change words to create a uniform level of formality throughout the document.

Sometimes revising and proofreading is more pleasant if done in an informal setting.

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If you’re really in a time bind, do a light revision, as outlined in the Light Revision Checklist. The quality of the final document may not be as high as with a thorough revision, but even a light revision is better than skipping revision altogether.

Checklist

Thorough Revision Checklist Content and clarity Does your document meet the needs of the organization and of the reader—and make you look good? Have you given readers all the information they need to understand and act on your message? Is all the information accurate and clear? Is the message easy to read? Is each sentence clear? Is the message free from apparently contradictory statements? Is the logic clear and convincing? Are generalizations and benefits backed up with adequate supporting detail? Organization and layout Is the pattern of organization clear? Is it appropriate for your purposes, audience, and context? Are transitions between ideas smooth? Do ideas within paragraphs flow smoothly? Does the design of the document make it easy for readers to find the information they need? Is the document visually inviting? Are the points emphasized by layout ones that deserve emphasis? Are the first and last paragraphs effective? Style and tone Does the message use you-attitude and positive emphasis? Is the message friendly and free from sexist language? Does the message build goodwill?

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Revisioning a Novel Michael Chabon is a Pulitzer Prize author. His novel, The Yiddish Policemen’s Union, had a blurb in his publisher’s sales catalog plus an onsale date when his editor made him revise it. He spent eight months reworking the entire book, adding a flashback structure and paring down the language. Altogether, he spent five years and four drafts working on the novel. In the process, he moved to a different plot and changed from a first-person to a thirdperson narrator. His editor sent him detailed notes in the margins of the drafts. On the final draft, she went over the manuscript page by page with him. The novel won both Hugo and Nebula awards, science fiction’s highest awards. Adapted from Sam Schechner, “Chabon’s Amazing Rewrite Adventures,” Wall Street Journal, April 27, 2007, W3.

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Checklist

Light Revision Checklist Have you given readers all the information they need to understand and act on your message? Is the pattern of organization clear and helpful? Is the logic clear and convincing? Are generalizations and benefits backed up with adequate supporting detail? Does the design of the document make it easy for readers to find the information they need? Are the first and last paragraphs effective?

What to Look for When You Edit Even good writers need to edit, because no one can pay attention to surface correctness while thinking of ideas. As a matter of fact, even historyshaping documents like the Declaration of Independence became better with editing. Editing should always follow revision. There’s no point in taking time to fix a grammatical error in a sentence that may be cut when you clarify your meaning or tighten your style. Some writers edit more accurately when they print out a copy of a document and edit the hard copy. Check your material to make sure you have acknowledged all information and opinions borrowed from outside the organization (see Chapter 18 for help on documentation). Using material from outside the organization without acknowledging the source is plagiarism. Check also that you have acknowledged company information that is controversial or not widely known. Check your communication to make sure your sentences say what youintend. Not:

Take a moment not to sign your policy.

But:

Take a moment now to sign your policy.

Not:

I wish to apply for the job as assistant manger.

But:

I wish to apply for the job as assistant manager.

One of the most famous editing errors in history was the so-called Wicked Bible, which left out a crucial not, thus changing one of the Ten Commandments into “Thou shalt commit adultery.” An extra not caused Arkansas to accidentally pass a law allowing its citizens of any age, even children, to marry if their parents agreed. The unintended law said this: In order for a person who is younger than eighteen (18) years of age and who is not pregnant to obtain a marriage license, the person must provide the county clerk with evidence of parental consent to the marriage.37

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When you edit, you also need to check that the following are accurate: ■

Sentence structure.

■

Subject–verb and noun–pronoun agreement.

■

Punctuation.

■

Word usage.

■

Spelling—including spelling of names.

■

Numbers.

You need to know the rules of grammar and punctuation to edit. Errors such as sentence fragments and run-on sentences disturb most educated readers and make them wonder what other mistakes you might be making. Errors in punctuation can change the meaning of a sentence. Lynne Truss, author of the New York Times best seller on punctuation, Eats, Shoots & Leaves, offers “a popular ‘Dear Jack’ letter” to show the need for care:38 Dear Jack, I want a man who knows what love is all about. You are generous, kind, thoughtful. People who are not like you admit to being useless and inferior. You have ruined me for other men. I yearn for you. I have no feelings whatsoever when we’re apart. I can be forever happy—will you let me be yours? Jill

Dear Jack, I want a man who knows what love is. All about you are generous, kind, thoughtful people, who are not like you. Admit to being useless and inferior. You have ruined me. For other men I yearn! For you I have no feelings whatsoever. When we’re apart I can be forever happy. Will you let me be? Yours, Jill

Writers with a good command of grammar and mechanics can do a better job than the computer grammar checkers currently available. But even good writers sometimes use a good grammar handbook for reference. On the other hand, even good editors—such as Bill Walsh, copy desk chief for the business desk of the Washington Post—warn writers that handbooks should be used with a clear goal of clarifying text, not blindly following rules.39 Appendix B reviews grammar, punctuation, numbers, and words that are often confused. Most writers make a small number of errors over and over. If you know that you have trouble with dangling modifiers or subject–verb agreement, for example, specifically look for them in your draft. Also look for any errors that especially bother your boss and correct them.

How to Catch Typos To catch typos use a spell-checker. But you still need to proofread by eye. Spell-checkers work by matching words; they will signal any group of letters

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What? Prof Reed? Why? Amazing proofreading errors circulate on social media; don’t let it happen to you. A typo missed by the Mitt Romney campaign gained notoriety when it suggested that voters should stick by him for “A Better Amercia.” A humorous graduation announcement typo was from the “Lyndon B. Johnson School of Pubic Affairs.” The menu from a Phoenix restaurant listed the ingredients for its Candy Apple Martini as containing, “Apple Pucker, Buttscotch liqueur....” Too often we rely on spell checkers, “witch wont ketch wards spelled rite, butt know yews wright.” Adapted from Merrill Perlman, “Why ‘Amercia’ Needs Copy Editors,” CNN, June 1, 2012, http://cnn.com/ 2012/06/01/opinion/perlmanromney-needs-editor/ index.html?=eref=mrss_ igoogle_cnn.

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The Cost of a Typo Most small proofreading errors are embarrassing to a company. Some errors, though still small, can be very costly and even dangerous. In February 2011, Johnson & Johnson recalled more than 667,000 packages of Sudafed because of an error in the directions. Instead of the standard warning, each of the packages instructed users “do not not divide, crush, chew, or dissolve the tablet.” Although no accidents or problems were reported from the incorrect instructions, the one repeated word cost the company time, money, and some of its reputation for quality. Not every typo requires a recall, but any one can be costly. Adapted from Melly Alazraki, “Johnson & Johnson Recalls Sudafed Because of a Typo,” February 25, 2011, http://www.dailyfinance .com/2011/02/25/johnsonand-johnson-recallssudafed-because-of-a-typo/.

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not listed in their dictionaries. However, they cannot tell you when you’ve used the wrong word but spelled it correctly. Don’t underestimate the harm that spelling errors can create. A large, Midwestern university lost its yearbook after an uncaught typo referred to the Greek community as the “geeks on campus.” Greeks boycotted the yearbook, which went deeply into debt and out of business. The impact of typos on job documents is well known (see “The Cost of a Typo” sidebar for example). Proofread every document both with a spell-checker and by eye, to catch the errors a spell-checker can’t find. Proofreading is hard because writers tend to see what they know should be there rather than what really is there. It’s easier to proof something you haven’t written, so you may want to swap papers with a proofing buddy. (Be sure the person looks for typos, not content.) To proofread, ■

Read once quickly for meaning, to see that nothing has been left out.

■

Read a second time, slowly. When you find an error, correct it and then reread that line. Readers tend to become less attentive after they find one error and may miss other errors close to the one they’ve spotted.

■

To proofread a document you know well, read the lines backward or the pages out of order.

Always triple-check numbers, headings, the first and last paragraphs, and the reader’s name.

Getting and Using Feedback Getting feedback almost always improves a document. In many organizations, it’s required. All external documents must be read and approved before they go out. The process of drafting, getting feedback, revising, and getting more feedback is called cycling. One researcher reported that documents in her clients’ firms cycled an average of 4.2 times before reaching the intended audience.40 Another researcher studied a major 10-page document whose 20drafts made a total of 31 stops on the desks of nine reviewers on four different levels.41 Being asked to revise a document is a fact of life in business. You can improve the quality of the feedback you get by telling people which aspects you’d especially like comments about. For example, when you give a reader the outline or planning draft, you probably want to know whether the general approach and content are appropriate, and if you have included all major points. After your second draft, you might want to know whether the reasoning is convincing. When you reach the polishing draft, you’ll be ready for feedback on style and grammar. The Questions to Ask Readers Checklist (page 148) offers suggestions. Technology helps with both giving and receiving feedback. Word documents can be edited using review features such as Track Changes, a word-processing feature that records alterations made to a document. It is particularly useful when you are collaborating with a colleague to create, edit, or revise documents. Track Changes will highlight any text that has been added or deleted to your document, and it also allows you to decide whether to accept each change or reject it and return to your original text. In addition to Track Changes, many word processors include a comment feature that allows you to ask questions or make suggestions without altering the text itself. Documents can also be posted in the cloud using Google Docs, and can then be edited by multiple people.

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It’s easy to feel defensive when someone criticizes your work. If the feedback stings, put it aside until you can read it without feeling defensive. Even if you think that the reader hasn’t understood what you were trying to say, the fact that the reader complained usually means the section could be improved. If the reader says “This isn’t true,” and you know the statement is true, several kinds of revision might make the truth clear to the reader: rephrasing the statement, giving more information or examples, or documenting the source. Reading feedback carefully is a good way to understand the culture of your organization. Are you told to give more details or to shorten messages? Does your boss add headings and bullet points? Look for patterns in the comments, and apply what you learn in your next document.

Using Boilerplate Boilerplate is language—sentences, paragraphs, even pages—from a previous document that a writer legitimately includes in a new document. In academic papers, material written by others must be quoted and documented—to neglect to do so would be plagiarism. However, because businesses own the documents their employees write, old text may be included without attribution. Many legal documents, including apartment leases and sales contracts, are almost completely boilerplate. Writers may also use boilerplate they wrote for earlier documents. For example, a section from a proposal describing the background of the problem could also be used in the final report. A section from a progress report describing what the writer had done could be used with only a few changes in the methods section of the final report. Writers use boilerplate both to save time and energy and to use language that has already been approved by the organization’s legal staff. However, research has shown that using boilerplate creates two problems.42 First, using unrevised boilerplate can create a document with incompatible styles and tones. Second, boilerplate can allow writers to ignore subtle differences in situations and audiences.

Readability Formulas Readability formulas attempt to measure objectively how easy something is to read. However, since they don’t take many factors into account, the formulas are at best a very limited guide to good style. Computer packages that analyze style may give you a readability score. Some states’ “plain English” laws require consumer contracts to meet a certain readability score. Some companies require that warranties and other consumer documents meet certain scores. Readability formulas depend heavily on word length and sentence length. See the Business and Administrative Communication website to calculate readability using the two best-known readability formulas: the Gunning Fog Index and the Flesch Reading Ease Scale. Research has shown,43 however, that using shorter words and sentences will not necessarily make a passage easy to read. Short words are not always easy to understand, especially if they have technical meanings (e.g., waive, bear market, liquid). Short, choppy sentences and sentence fragments are actually harder to understand than well-written, medium-length sentences. No reading formula yet devised takes into account three factors that influence how easy a text is to read: the complexity of the ideas, the organization of the ideas, and the layout and design of the document.

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MBAs Can’t Write The writing and presentation skills of MBAs have long been a complaint of employers. Too many words, employers say, and too many big words. Graduates are particularly inept at preparing short persuasive communications or writing for multiple audiences. Now MBA programs are acting on the complaints. The Wharton School of Business now requires 12 communication classes, twice what it required before. Other business schools are adding writing coaches and having the writing coaches assign writing grades to papers for other courses. Adapted from Diana Middleton, “Students Struggle for Words,” Wall Street Journal, March 3, 2011, B8.

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Instead of using readability formulas, test your draft with the people for whom it is designed. How long does it take them to find the information they need? Do they make mistakes when they try to use the document? Do they think the writing is easy to understand? Answers to these questions can give much more accurate information than any readability score.

Checklist

Questions to Ask Readers Outline or planning draft Does the plan seem on the right track? What topics should be added? Should any be cut? Do you have any other general suggestions? Revising draft Does the message satisfy all its purposes? Is the message adapted to the audience(s)? Is the organization effective? What parts aren’t clear? What ideas need further development and support? Do you have any other suggestions? Polishing draft Are there any problems with word choice or sentence structure? Did you find any inconsistencies? Did you find any typos? Is the document’s design effective?

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Summary by Learning Objectives LO 5-1

Activities involved in the composing process, and how to use these activities to your advantage.

Processes that help writers write well include not expecting the first draft to be perfect, writing regularly, modifying the initial task if it’s too hard or too easy, having clear goals, knowing many different strategies, using rules as guidelines rather than as absolutes, and waiting to edit until after the draft is complete. Writing processes can include many activities: planning, gathering, brainstorming, organizing, writing, evaluating, getting feedback, revising, editing, and proofreading. Revising means changing the document to make it better satisfy the writer’s purposes and the audience. Editing means making surface-level changes that make the document grammatically correct. Proofreading means checking to be sure the document is free from typographical errors. The activities do not have to come in any set order. It is not necessary to finish one activity to start another. Most writers use all activities only when they write a document whose genre, subject matter, or audience is new to them. To think of ideas, try brainstorming, freewriting (writing without stopping for 10 minutes or so), and clustering (brainstorming with circled words on a page). LO 5-2

Guidelines for effective word choice, sentence construction, and paragraph organization.

Good style in business and administrative writing is less formal, more friendly, and more personal than the style usually used for term papers. Use the following techniques to make your writing easier to read. As you choose words, 1. Use words that are accurate, appropriate, and familiar. Denotation is a word’s literal meaning; connotation is the emotional coloring that a word conveys.

Use technical jargon sparingly; eliminate business jargon. As you write and revise sentences, 3. Use active voice most of the time. Active voice is better because it is shorter, clearer, and more interesting. 4. Use verbs—not nouns—to carry the weight of your sentence. 5. Eliminate wordiness. Writing is wordy if the same idea can be expressed in fewer words. a. Eliminate words that add nothing. b. Combine sentences to eliminate unnecessary words. c. Put the meaning of your sentence into the subject and verb to cut the number of words. 6. Vary sentence length and sentence structure. 7. Use parallel structure. Use the same grammatical form for ideas that have the same logical function. 8. Put your readers in your sentences. As you write and revise paragraphs, 9. Begin most paragraphs with topic sentences so that readers know what to expect in the paragraph. 10. Use transitions to link ideas. LO 5-3

Techniques to revise, edit, and proofread your communications.

If the writing situation is new or difficult, plan to revise the draft at least three times. The first time, look for content and completeness. The second time, check the organization, layout, and reasoning. Finally, check style and tone. Edit for surface-level changes to make your document grammatically correct. Finally, proofread to catch typos. Use available technologies to help you.

Continuing Case The All-Weather Case, set in an HR department in a manufacturing company, extends through all 19 chapters and is available at www.mhhe.com/locker11e. The portion for this chapter asks students to revise, edit, and proofread a document.

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Exercises and Cases 5.1

Reviewing the Chapter

5.2

■ ■

■ ■ ■

What kind of planning do you do before you write? Do you make lists? formal or informal outlines? When you need more information, where do you getit? How do you compose your drafts? Do you dictate? Draft with pen and paper? Compose on screen? How do you find uninterrupted time to compose? When you want advice about style, grammar, and spelling, what source(s) do you consult? Does your superior ever read your drafts and make suggestions? Do you ever work with other writers to produce a single document? Describe the process you use.

5.3

■ ■ ■ ■

■

Describe the process of creating a document where you felt the final document reflected your best work. Describe the process of creating a document you found difficult or frustrating. What sorts of things make writing easier or harder for you?

As your instructor directs, a.

Share your results orally with a small group of students. b. Present your results in an oral presentation to theclass. c. Present your results in an e-mail to your instructor. d. Share your results with a small group of students and write a joint e-mail reporting the similarities and differences you found.

Analyzing Your Own Writing Processes

Save your notes and drafts from several assignments so that you can answer the following questions: ■

6. What are some ways you can make your paragraphs more effective? (LO 5-2) 7. How can you adapt good style to organization preferences? (LO 5-2) 8. How do revising, editing, and proofreading differ? Which one do you personally need to do more carefully? (LO 5-3) 9. How can you get better feedback on your writing? (LO 5-3)

Interviewing Writers about Their Composing Processes

Interview someone about the composing process(es) he or she uses for on-the-job writing. Questions you could ask include the following: ■

*Go to www.mhhe.com/locker11e for additional Exercises and Cases.

Which practices of good writers do you follow? Which of the activities discussed in Chapter 5 do you use? How much time do you spend on each of the activities? What kinds of revisions do you make most often? Do you use different processes for different documents, or do you have one process that you use most of the time? What parts of your process seem most successful? Are there any places in the process that could be improved? How? What relation do you see between the process(es) you use and the quality of the final document?

As your instructor directs, a. b.

Discuss your process with a small group of other students. Write an e-mail to your instructor analyzing in detail your process for composing one of the papers for this class. Write an e-mail to your instructor analyzing your process during the term. What parts of your process(es) have stayed the same throughout the term? What parts have changed?

Chapter 5

5.4

Planning, Composing, and Revising

Evaluating the Ethical Implication of Connotations

In each of the following pairs, identify the more favorable term. When is its use justifiable? 1. 2. 3. 4.

wasted/sacrificed illegal alien/immigrant friendly fire/enemy attack terminate/fire

5.5

1. In our group, we weeded out the best idea each person had thought of. 2. She is a prudent speculator. 3. The three proposals are diametrically opposed to each other.

1. When the automobile company announced its strategic downsizing initiative, it offered employees a career alternative enhancement program. 2. Any alterations must be approved during the 30-day period commencing 60 days prior to the expiration date of the agreement. 3. As per your request, the undersigned has obtained estimates of upgrading our computer system. A copy of the estimated cost is attached hereto.

4. Please be advised that this writer is in considerable need of a new computer. 5. Enclosed please find the proposed draft for the employee negative retention plan. In the event that you have alterations which you would like to suggest, forward same to my office at your earliest convenience.

Changing Verbs from Passive to Active Voice

Identify passive voice in the following sentences and convert it to active voice. In some cases, you may need to add information to do so. You may use different words as long as you retain the basic meaning of the sentence. Remember that imperative verbs are active voice, too. 1. It has been suggested by the corporate office that all faxes are to be printed on recycled paper. 2. The office carpets will be cleaned professionally on Friday evening. It is requested that all staff members put belongings up on their desks.

5.8

4. While he researched companies, he was literally glued to the web. 5. Our backpacks are hand sewn by one of roughly 16 individuals. 6. Raj flaunted the law against insider trading.

Eliminating Jargon and Simplifying Language

Revise these sentences to eliminate jargon and to use short, familiar words.

5.7

5. inaccuracy/lying 6. budget/spending plan 7. feedback/criticism

Correcting Errors in Denotation and Connotation

Identify and correct the errors in denotation or connotation in the following sentences:

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3. The office microwave is to be cleaned by those who use it. 4. When the vacation schedule is finalized it is recommended that it be routed to all supervisors for final approval. 5. Material must not be left on trucks outside the warehouse. Either the trucks must be parked inside the warehouse or the material must be unloaded at the time of receiving the truck.

Using Strong Verbs

Revise each of the following sentences to replace hidden verbs with action verbs. 1. An understanding of stocks and bonds is important if one wants to invest wisely.

2. We must undertake a calculation of expected revenues and expenses for the next two years. 3. The production of clear and concise documents is the mark of a successful communicator.

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4. We hope to make use of the company’s website to promote the new product line. 5. If you wish to be eligible for the Miller scholarship, you must complete an application by January 31. 6. When you make an evaluation of media buys, take into consideration the demographics of the group seeing the ad.

5.9

Reducing Wordiness

1. Eliminate words that say nothing. You may use different words. a. There are many businesses that are active in community and service work. b. The purchase of another computer for the claims department will allow us to produce form letters quickly. In addition, return on investment could be calculated for proposed repairs. Another use is that the computer could check databases to make sure that claims are paid only once. c. Our decision to enter the South American market has precedence in the past activities of the company. 2. Combine sentences to show how ideas are related and to eliminate unnecessary words. a. Some customers are profitable for companies. Other customers actually cost the companymoney.

5.10

b. If you are unable to come to the session on HMOs, please call the human resources office. You will be able to schedule another time to ask questions you may have about the various options. c. Major Japanese firms often have employees who know English well. U.S. companies negotiating with Japanese companies should bring their own interpreters. d. New procedure for customer service employees: Please be aware effective immediately, if a customer is requesting a refund of funds applied to their account a front and back copy of the check must be submitted if the transaction is over $500.00. For example, if the customer is requesting $250.00 back, and the total amount of the transaction is $750.00, a front and back copy of the check will be needed to obtain the refund.

Improving Parallel Structure

Revise each of the following sentences to create parallelism. 1. The orientation session will cover the following information: ■ Company culture will be discussed. ■ How to use the equipment. ■ You will get an overview of key customers’ needs. 2. Five criteria for a good web page are content that serves the various audiences, attention to details, and originality. It is also important to have effective

5.11

7. We provide assistance to clients in the process of reaching a decision about the purchase of hardware and software.

organization and navigation devices. Finally, provide attention to details such as revision date and the webmaster’s address. 3. When you leave a voice mail message, ■ Summarize your main point in a sentence or two. ■ The name and phone number should be given slowly and distinctly. ■ The speaker should give enough information so that the recipient can act on the message. ■ Tell when you’ll be available to receive the recipient’s return call.

Revising Paragraphs

1. Make each of the following paragraphs more readable by opening each paragraph with a topic sentence. You may be able to find a topic sentence in the paragraph and move it to the beginning. In other cases, you’ll need to write a new sentence. a. At Disney World, a lunch put on an expense account is “on the mouse.” McDonald’s employees “have ketchup in their veins.” Business slang flourishes at companies with rich

corporate cultures. Memos at Procter & Gamble are called “reco’s” because the model P&G memo begins with a recommendation. b. The first item on the agenda is the hiring for the coming year. George has also asked that we review the agency goals for the next fiscal year. We should cover this early in the meeting since it may affect our hiring preferences. Finally, we need to announce the deadlines for grant

Chapter 5

Planning, Composing, and Revising

proposals, decide which grants to apply for, and set up a committee to draft each proposal. c. Separate materials that can be recycled from your regular trash. Pass along old clothing, toys, or appliances to someone else who can use them. When you purchase products, choose those with minimal packaging. If you have a yard, put your yard waste and kitchen scraps (excluding meat and fat) in a compost pile. You can reduce the amount of solid waste your household produces in four ways. 2. Revise each paragraph to make it easier to read. Change, rearrange, or delete words and sentences; add any material necessary. a. Once a new employee is hired, each one has to be trained for a week by one of our supervisors at a cost of $1,000 each which includes the supervisor’s time. This amount also includes half of the new employee’s salary, since new hires produce only half the normal production per worker for the week. This summer $24,000 was spent in training 24 new employees. Absenteeism increased in the department on

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the hottest summer days. For every day each worker is absent we lose $200 in lost production. This past summer there was a total of 56 absentee days taken for a total loss of $11,200 in lost production. Turnover and absenteeism were the causes of an unnecessary expenditure of over $35,000 this summer. b. One service is investments. General financial news and alerts about companies in the customer’s portfolio are available. Quicken also provides assistance in finding the best mortgage rate and in providing assistance in making the decision whether to refinance a mortgage. Another service from Quicken is advice for the start and management of a small business. Banking services, such as paying bills and applying for loans, have long been available to Quicken subscribers. The taxpayer can be walked through the tax preparation process by Quicken. Someone considering retirement can use Quicken to ascertain whether the amount being set aside for this purpose is sufficient. Quicken’s website provides seven services.

Revising, Editing, and Proofreading an E-mail

Dana Shomacher, an enthusiastic new hire of six months at Bear Foods, wants Stan Smith, regional head of HR at the grocery chain, to allow her to organize and publicize a food drive for Coastal Food Pantry. Revise, edit, and proof here-mail. Hey Stan, I have this great idea for great publicity for Bear Foods that won’t cost anything and will get us some really great publicity. Its something great we can do for our community. I wont Bear to conduct a food drive for Coastal Food Pantry. Their was an article in the Tribune about how they were having trouble keeping up with food requests and I thought what a great fit it would be for Bear. All our employees should donate food and we should also get our customer to donate also. We could set out some shopping carts for the donations. I could write an announcement for the Tribune and get some postures made for our front windows. I am willing to take care of all details so you won’t have to do anything except say yes to this e-mail. Dana

After you have fixed Dana’s e-mail, answer these questions in an e-mail to your instructor. ■ ■

What revisions did you make? Why? Many grocery stores already contribute to local food pantries. In addition to some staples, they provide items such as bakery goods that are past their sale date but still quite tasty, sacks for bagging groceries at the pantry, and even shopping carts to transport groceries to the cars of pantry clients. If Bear already

■ ■

contributes to Coastal, how should that fact change the content of Dana’s e-mail? What edits did you make? Why? What impression do you think this e-mail made on the head of human resources? Explain. Do you think he granted Dana’s request? Why or why not?

Submit both your version of Dana’s e-mail and your analysis e-mail.

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The Communication Process

Writing Paragraphs

As your instructor directs, write a paragraph on one or more of the following topics.

a. b.

As your instructor directs,

Discuss your ideal job. Summarize a recent article from a business magazine or newspaper. c. Explain how technology is affecting the field you plan to enter. d. Explain why you have or have not decided to work while you attend college.

5.14

a. b.

Write a profile of someone who is successful in the field you hope to enter.

Label topic sentences, active voice, and parallel structure. Edit a classmate’s paragraphs to make the writing even tighter and smoother.

Identifying Buzzwords and Jargon

This is an actual press release published in the Des Moines Register with an article on buzzwords.

Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., the largest private employer with more than 1.8 million employees and the largest corporate mover of people, selected Capital Relocation Services as the sole source provider for the implementation of its Tier III and Tier IV relocation programs. These two programs account for the vast majority of the company’s relocations. Capital was awarded the business following an intensive RFP and due diligence process. “We’re very excited about the synergy that Wal-Mart’s selection of Capital brings to both companies,” commented Mickey Williams, Capital’s CEO. “We are also pleased to welcome to Capital the existing Wal-Mart PMP Relocation team that has been onsite at Wal-Mart’s Bentonville headquarters for 14 years. They will continue to serve Wal-Mart and Sam’s Club’s Associates and will have an active role in the implementation of the new policy.” “What really enabled us to stand out was our focus on the strategic results WalMart was looking for, and connecting that to their relocation program,” added Williams. “Additionally, we demonstrated what would need to be done to achieve those results.” Mr. Williams continued, “Several years ago, we realized that traditional relocation solutions weren’t enough. The challenge was that relocation management had become a logistics focused straightjacket. The emphasis was on efficiency and not on effectiveness. In a time of unprecedented change, relocation management programs were becoming increasingly inflexible.” “We realized that our continued success required us to stop thinking of ourselves solely as a relocation management company—we had to start thinking and acting as a talent management support company; after all that is the underlying purpose of relocation management in the first place. Wal-Mart’s selection of Capital is a big confirmation that our approach is the right one.”44

Now answer these questions: 1. What is this press release about? What is it saying? 2. Why did Capital Relocation Services get the new contract? 3. Underline the buzzwords and jargon in the press release. What do these words do in the press release?

4. What is the purpose of this press release? Does it meet its purpose? Why or why not? Write an e-mail to your instructor evaluating the press release as an effective document.

Chapter 5

5.15

Planning, Composing, and Revising

Revising Documents Using Track Changes

For this exercise, you will electronically exchange a document with one of your classmates. With the Track Changes feature turned on, you will review each other’s documents, make comments or ask questions, insert additions, and make deletions to improve the writing, and then revise your work based upon the changes andcomments. As your instructor directs, select the electronic file of the document you created for Exercise 5.13 “Writing Paragraphs” or another document that you have created for this class. Exchange this file with your peer review partner. Open your partner’s file and select Track Changes. Review the document and make suggestions that will help your peer improve the writing. For instance, you can ■ ■

Look for accurate, appropriate, and ethical wording as well as instances of unnecessary jargon. Look for active voice and concise prose.

5.16

■ ■

Look for structural issues like topic sentences, tightly written paragraphs, varied sentence structure and length, and focus upon the thesis statement. Suggest where sentences can be combined or where sentences need parallel structure. Look for you-attitude. Ask questions (using comments) when the text isn’t clear or make suggestions to tighten the writing or improve word choices.

Return the document to its author and open yours to review the changes and comments your partner added to your document. For each change, decide whether to accept or reject the suggestion. Continue to revise the document. Then submit a copy of your original version and the revised version to your instructor.

been made? What are examples of each kind? Can you understand the revised version? Did you understand the original version?

Investigating the Plain Language Act in Federal Agencies

1. Go to http://www.plainlanguage.gov and read some of the examples of good and bad business writing. Pick one example to discuss in your small group. What changes were made? Did all the changes work for you? Would you have written anything differently? Explain. Read the “technical” version of Little Red Riding Hood (look under “Examples,” then “Humor,” then the “sarcastic piece about using plain language for technical writing.” Little Red Riding Hood is the illustration at the end of this piece). Which changes obscured the sense of the fairy tale the most? Which did you find the most amusing?

5.18

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Using the SEC’s A Plain English Handbook

Go to the Securities and Exchange Commission’s A Plain English Handbook at http://www.sec.gov/pdf/handbook .pdf. Scroll down to Appendix B and look at the four before and after examples. What kinds of changes have

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2. Look at some of the plain language guidelines for some of the agencies listed at http://www .plainlanguage.gov/plLaw/fedGovt/index.cfm. ■ Work in small groups, with each group checking the adaptations of a different agency. Report back to the class. As a class, discuss how different agencies adapt the act to their focus. ■ In your groups, also look at some of the before and after examples. Share a particularly good one with the class, explaining the changes in the improved message.

Evaluating Editorial Ethics

When college admissions officers review applications, part of the information they consider is the personal essay. Now students are getting help on those essays. A thriving industry has grown up around the college essay. Numerous books, websites, and training seminars have been developed to help students write college essays that will win them admission into their college of choice. Most of the sources do not actually write the

essay, but all offer advice, suggestions, and examples to help students craft their own papers. People in the new industry claim they are doing nothing wrong. After all, parents have always been able to help their children write and revise their applications. The new industry also blames the universities for creating the demand for writing assistance. Yet admissions officers worry that the college essay industry is doing more harm than good. They note that

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the prep services lead to formulaic essays that look prepped and may not match the information on the application form. Outstanding essays may not be matched by the students’ writing and verbal skills scores. Plagiarism site Turnitin.com says 11% of the admissions essays it checked contained at least one-quarter unoriginal material. Other critics claim that the costly services put students who cannot afford the extra help at a disadvantage.45 Do you think essay prep services are ethical? Why or why not? 1. Many college career offices have open files of essays students have written for graduate school applications. Are these examples ethical? 2. Suppose you look at many of these essays, then write a draft of your own that an adviser heavily marks up for content, organization, and mechanics. Is this level of help ethical?

5.19

3. If you answered yes to questions 1 and 2, is there a level of help you find unethical? What is it? 4. Are your answers to questions 1 and 2 the same as your answers about the for-profit essay services? Why or why not? 5. Is similar help (files of examples, detailed feedback from a colleague) on a work document ethical? Why or why not? If your answer is different here from your answer to question 2, what factors cause the difference? Discuss your answers in small groups. Then write an e-mail to your instructor detailing ■ ■ ■

Your opinions about the ethics involved in questions1–5. Areas where your group disagreed with your opinions. Insights you gained from the group discussion.

Evaluating a Letter to Stockholders

Figure5.2 provides excerpts from Warren Buffett’s annual letter to his stockholders. The complete letter is found at Warren Buffett, “Letters 2012,” Berkshire Hathaway Inc., http://www.berkshirehathaway.com/letters/2012ltr. pdf. Answer these questions about the letter:

3. Buffett is known for explaining general financial issues in these letters. In the 2012 letter what does he say about newspapers? Dividends? Are these explanations clear? What phrases and sentences support your opinion?

1. How many people are praised by name? 2. Pages 126–27 in this chapter offer examples of his colorful style. What other examples can you find?

5.20

Analyzing Your Own Writing

Collect five pages of writing you have prepared for college courses. Now review “Ten Ways to Make Your Writing Easier to Read.” Mark places in your writing where you have had problems with those guidelines, and identify which of the guidelines those places violate. Which guideline seems to give you the most trouble in your five pages? Would you agree with your findings? Or do you think your five pages are atypical of your writing? If you do not agree with your findings, which of the guidelines do you think generally gives you the most trouble? Now trade pages with a partner. Read your partner’s pages and mark places where he or she had problems with the 10 guidelines.

Retrieve your own pages. Did your partner find some problems you missed? On the basis of this exercise, as well as your knowledge of your own writing, write an e-mail to your instructor explaining which of the guidelines (choose just two or three) you most need to work on. Give problem sentences from your writing as evidence. Below the text of the e-mail, correct the problem sentences you used as evidence.

Notes 1. See especially Linda Flower and John R. Hayes, “The Cognition of Discovery: Defining a Rhetorical Problem,” College Composition and Communication 31, no. 1 (February 1980): 21–32; Mike Rose, Writer’s Block: The Cognitive Dimension, published for Conference on College Composition and Communication, 1984; and essays in two collections: Charles R. Cooper and Lee Odell, Research on Composing: Points of Departure (Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers

of English, 1978); Mike Rose, ed., When a Writer Can’t Write: Studies in Writer’s Block and Other Composing-Process Problems (New York: Guilford Press, 1985). 2. Peter Elbow, Writing with Power: Techniques for Mastering the Writing Process (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 15–20. 3. See Gabriela Lusser Rico, Writing the Natural Way (Los Angeles: J. P. Tarcher, 1983), 10.

Chapter 5

Planning, Composing, and Revising

4. Rachel Spilka, “Orality and Literacy in the Workplace: Process- and Text-Based Strategies for Multiple Audience Adaptation,” Journal of Business and Technical Communication 4, no. 1 (January 1990): 44–67. 5. Anne Lamott, Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life (New York: Anchor, 1994), 25. 6. Ibid., 19. 7. Ibid., 25. 8. Robert L. Brown, Jr., and Carl G. Herndl, “An Ethnographic Study of Corporate Writing: Job Status as Reflected in Written Text,” in Functional Approaches to Writing: A Research Perspective, ed. Barbara Couture (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986), 16–19, 22–23. 9. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission Office of Investor Education and Assistance, A Plain English Handbook: How to Create Clear SEC Disclosure Documents (Washington, DC: 1998). 10. Eleanor Laise, “Some Consumers Say Wall Street Failed Them,” Wall Street Journal, November 28, 2008, B1. 11. Gerard Braud, “What Does That Mean?” Communication World 24, no. 1 (2007): 34. 12. Carol Loomis, ed. Tap Dancing to Work: Warren Buffett on Practically Everything, 1966–2012: A Fortune Magazine Book (New York: Portfolio/Penguin, 2012), 34. 13. Bullets quoted from: Warren Buffett, “Letters 2012,” Berkshire Hathaway Inc., accessed March 4, 2013, http:// www.berkshirehathaway.com/letters/2012ltr.pdf. 14. Richard Lederer and Richard Dowis, Sleeping Dogs Don’t Lay: Practical Advice for the Grammatically Challenged (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), 91–92. 15. James Suchan and Robert Colucci, “An Analysis of Communication Efficiency between High-Impact and Bureaucratic Written Communication,” Management Communication Quarterly 2, no. 4 (1989): 464–73. 16. Hiluard G. Rogers and F. William Brown, “The Impact of Writing Style on Compliance with Instructions,” Journal of Technical Writing and Communication 23, no. 1 (1993): 53–71. 17. Richard Lederer, “The Terrible Ten,” Toastmaster, July 2003, 28–29. 18. Roger Pielke, Jr., “Dear Expert, Please Cook the Books,” Wall Street Journal, January 30, 2013, A11; and Doyle Rice, “Why Didn’t Sandy Warrant a Warning?” Des Moines Register, December 2, 2012, 14A. 19. Tony Leys, “Hospitals Avoid Taxes Despite Little Free Care,” Des Moines Register, October 16, 2011, 1A. 20. Melinda Beck, “Psychiatrists Revise Mental-Disorder Categories,” Wall Street Journal, December 3, 2012, A2. 21. Chad Bray and Anjali Cordeiro, “Tobacco Firms Score Victory as Class-Action Suit Is Denied,” Wall Street Journal, April 4, 2008, B3; and “FDA May Rephrase Pacemaker Warnings,” Wall Street Journal, September 29, 2006, A8. 22. Melinda Beck, “Getting an Earful: Testing a Tiny, Pricey Hearing Aid,” Wall Street Journal, January 29, 2008, D1. 23. Jaguar ad, Wall Street Journal, September 29, 2000, A20. 24. Betsy Taylor, “Experts: Flood Terms Can Deceive,” Des Moines Register, July 1, 2008, 9A. 25. Evan Perez, “Mukasey Cites Risk in Using Term ‘Torture,’” Wall Street Journal, January 17, 2009, A2. 26. Daniel M. Oppenheimer, “Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words Needlessly,” Applied Cognitive Psychology 20 (2006): 139–56. 27. Richard C. Anderson, “Concretization and Sentence Learning,” Journal of Educational Psychology 66, no. 2 (1974): 179–83.

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28. Ben Worthen, “Oracle’s Hot New Offering: Corporate Technobabble,” Wall Street Journal, February 12, 2008, B4. 29. Pamela Layton and Adrian J. Simpson, “Deep Structure in Sentence Comprehension,” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 14 (1975); and Harris B. Savin and Ellen Perchonock, “Grammatical Structure and the Immediate Recall of English Sentences,” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 4 (1965): 348–53. 30. “Document Checklist for Plain Language,” PlainLanguage .gov, accessed May 11, 2013, http://www.plainlanguage .gov/howto/quickreference/checklist.cfm. 31. Bill Walsh, The Elephants of Style: A Trunkload of Tips on the Big Issues and Gray Areas of Contemporary American English (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004), 68. 32. Lloyd Bostian and Ann C. Thering, “Scientists: Can They Read What They Write?” Journal of Technical Writing and Communication 17 (1987): 417–27; E. B. Coleman, “The Comprehensibility of Several Grammatical Transformations,” Journal of Applied Psychology 48, no. 3 (1964): 186–90; and Keith Rayner, “Visual Attention in Reading: Eye Movements Reflect Cognitive Processes,” Memory and Cognition 5 (1977): 443–48. 33. Adam Freedman, “And the Winners Are...,” The Party of the First Part (blog), last updated September 21, 2007, http://thepartyofthefirstpart.blogspot.com/2007/09/ and-winners-are.html. 34. Thomas N. Huckin, “A Cognitive Approach to Readability,” in New Essays in Technical and Scientific Communication: Research, Theory, Practice, eds. Paul V. Anderson, R. John Brockmann, and Carolyn R. Miller (Farmingdale, NY: Baywood, 1983), 93–98. 35. James Suchan and Ronald Dulek, “A Reassessment of Clarity in Written Managerial Communications,” Management Communication Quarterly 4, no. 1 (1990): 93–97. 36. Doris Kearns Goodwin, Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005), 583–87. 37. “Law Typo Allows Children to Marry,” Des Moines Register, August 18, 2007, 8A. 38. Lynne Truss, Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation (New York: Gotham Books, 2003), 9–10. 39. Bill Walsh, Lapsing into a Comma: A Curmudgeon’s Guide to the Many Things That Can Go Wrong in Print—and How to Avoid Them (Lincolnwood, IL: Contemporary Books, 2000), 1. 40. Dianna Booher, “Cutting Paperwork in the Corporate Culture,” New York: Facts on File Publications (1986): 23. 41. Susan D. Kleimann, “The Complexity of Workplace Review,” Technical Communication 38, no. 4 (1991): 520–26. 42. Glenn J. Broadhead and Richard C. Freed, The Variables of Composition: Process and Product in a Business Setting, Conference on College Composition and Communication Studies in Writing and Rhetoric (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986), 57. 43. Janice C. Redish and Jack Selzer, “The Place of Readability Formulas in Technical Communication,” Technical Communication 32, no. 4 (1985): 46–52. 44. Larry Ballard, “Decipher a Honcho’s Buzzwords, Such as ‘Unsiloing,’” Des Moines Register, January 21, 2008, 1D. 45. June Kronholz, “Perfect College Essay Takes Lots of Practice—and Extra Help,” Wall Street Journal, July 11, 2005, A1, A8; and “The Admissions Police,” Wall Street Journal, April 6, 2007, W1, W10.

Designing Documents

Chapter Outline The Importance of Effective Design as Part of the Writing Process Design and Conventions Levels of Design Guidelines for Document Design 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Selecting Appropriate Visuals Creating the Design ■ Printing the Brochure ■

Designing Infographics ■

Analyzing Your Rhetorical Situation Researching Your Topic ■ Finding Visuals ■ Drafting the Text ■ Putting it All Together ■

Designing Web Pages ■

Attracting and Maintaining Attention Creating a Usable Home Page ■ Providing Easy Navigation ■ Following Conventions ■ Increasing Accessibility ■

Using Software Programs for Creating Document Designs

Testing the Design for Usability

Designing Brochures

Summary by Learning Objectives

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Use White Space Use Headings Limit the Use of Words Set in All Capital Letters Use No More than Two Fonts in a Single Document Decide Whether to Justify Margins Put Important Elements in the Top Left and Lower Right Quadrants Use a Grid to Unify Graphic Elements Use Highlighting, Decorative Devices, and Color in Moderation

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Analyzing Your Rhetorical Situation Drafting the Text

NEWSWORTHY COMMUNICATION Designing for Success

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Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, you will know LO 6-1

Why document design is important and how to incorporate it into the writing process.

LO 6-2

The four levels of document design, and how they can help you critique documents.

LO 6-3

Guidelines for document design.

LO 6-4

How to design brochures.

LO 6-5

How to design infographics.

LO 6-6

How to design web pages.

LO 6-7

How to do basic usability testing on your documents.

Good Document Design Saves Money Document design changes are not just cosmetic. Information Mapping International, a communications consulting company, reports these savings among its customers: ■

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A major brokerage firm found 5,000 document inconsistencies by using Information Mapping services. After creating a new document system, the firm experienced a 30% reduction in costly errors. A leading credit card company reduced the average length of phone calls to its customer service center by 60 seconds after improving the design of its reference materials. This time reduction reduced costs by 20%. A leading health care provider redesigned its customer claims manual and saw the number of calls to the help desk decrease by 50%. A major government agency struggling with information overload used Information Mapping to create “uniform information architecture” agencywide. Newly trained “mappers” changed more than 60,000 pages, and the agency reported over $17 million in cost savings.

Adapted from “Resources—Case Studies,” Information Mapping, accessed May 8, 2013, http://infomap.com/en/ resources-en/case-studies.

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ood document design saves time and money, reduces legal problems, and builds goodwill. Effective design groups ideas visually, making the structure of a document more inviting and obvious so the document is easier to read. Easy-to-read documents enhance your credibility and build an image of you as a professional, competent person. Many workplaces expect you to be able to create designs that go beyond the basic templates you’ll find in common software programs. Good design is important not only for brochures, infographics, web pages, reports, and newsletters but also for announcements, letters, and e-mails.

The Importance of Effective Design as Part of the Writing Process LO 6-1 When document design is poor, both organizations and society suffer. The Challenger space shuttle blew up because its O-rings failed in the excessive cold. Poor communication—including charts that hid, rather than emphasized, the data about O-ring performance—contributed to the decision to launch. More recently, after the Columbia space shuttle disintegrated during reentry, poor communication was again implicated in NASA’s failure to ensure the spacecraft was safe. Mission leaders insisted that engineers had not briefed them on the seriousness of the damage to the shuttle when a piece of foam struck it on takeoff. But after studying transcripts of meetings, Edward R. Tufte, who specializes in visual presentations of evidence, concluded that engineers did offer their concerns and supporting statistics. However, they did so using visuals that obscured the seriousness.1 In 2000, the badly designed Florida ballot confused enough voters to cloud the outcome of the U.S. presidential election. More recently, the Des Moines Register faced backlash from readers for a poorly juxtaposed cover spread. The top of the front page featured an article about global leaders coming together to help millions fight worldwide hunger. The article below the fold was about a local bar that serves a five-pound burger.2

Chapter 6

Designing Documents

Design isn’t something to “tack on” when you’ve finished writing. Indeed, the best documents, slides, and screens are created when you think about design at each stage of the writing process.

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As you plan, think about your audience. Are they skilled readers? Are they busy? Will they read the document straight through or skip around?

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As you write, incorporate lists and headings. Use visuals to convey numerical data clearly and forcefully.

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Get feedback from people who will be using your document. Do they find the document hard to understand? Do they need additional visuals?

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As you revise, check your draft against the guidelines in this chapter.

Design and Conventions Like all aspects of communication, effective design relies heavily on conventions. These conventions provide a design language. For instance, most graphical interfaces are organized around the desktop metaphor, which uses files, folders, tabs, and trash cans. Commercial websites use the metaphor of the shopping cart. We have a mental image of the way brochures, e-mails, or business cards are supposed to look. Conventions may vary by audience, geographic area, industry, company, or even department, but they do exist. Some conventions work well with some audiences but not with others, so careful audience analysis is necessary. The British and Americans prefer serif typefaces; the French and Dutch prefer sans serif. Instruction pictures for office equipment generally show feminine hands using the equipment. Some female readers will relate more readily to the instructions; others will be offended at the implied assumption that only women perform such low-level office jobs.3 Conventions also change over time. Résumés used to be typed documents; now most companies ask for electronic ones. Today we rarely use Courier font; we italicize titles rather than underlining them; and we space once rather than twice after periods at ends of sentences. Conventions also change with new software. When Microsoft Word 2007 and Word 2008 were launched, they broke long-standing Word conventions. They used the font Cambria for headings and Calibri for body text, instead of the traditional Times New Roman. The default spacing changed from single to 1.5. Time will tell if these settings become new conventions. Social media platforms are no exception to design conventions either, especially when it comes to user interfaces. When Facebook revises its user interface, which seems to happen often, many users are constantly frustrated with the changes because their conventional understanding of how to use the program has altered. Users have to adapt to new conventions. Violating conventions is risky: violations may not be interpreted correctly, or they may signal that the author or designer is unreliable or unknowledgeable. Brochures with text that does not fit properly into the folded panels, freehand drawings in a set of installation instructions, or bar charts with garish color designs can destroy the reader’s trust.4

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Design Research Is Key Designing directional signs for streets and subway systems should be easy, right? When the three independent subway systems in New York City merged in 1940, the signs were a confusing hodgepodge of detailed antique mosaics and hand-painted placards. They existed in this state for more than 20 years. Then in 1966, New York’s Transit Authority contracted with design firm Unimark International to redesign the signs and coordinate their placement in the subway system. The designers carefully analyzed the needs of the people who used the subway to find the best places to put each sign. They proposed a standard look for each sign, using the typeface Helvetica and colorcoded disks. These design elements still help commuters navigate the subway today. Now the Transit Authority’s distinctive signs are a recognized symbol of New York City. Although most designers rarely get to work on something as large as redesigning a city’s transit system, the process of designing for the audience that Unimark used in New York should apply to any document. Adapted from Michael Bierut, “When in Helvetica,” Wall Street Journal, March 26, 2011, C8.

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Designing for Baby Boomers As baby boomers turn 60, many start to lose the ability to see as clearly as they once did. Tiny buttons on cell phones, small typeface on pill bottles, and even the low lighting in some restaurants all make reading a difficult task. But this baby boomer generation is not bashful when it comes to denouncing issues with poor document design. As a result, some corporations are trying to help this large population see and function better in our society: ■

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Romano’s Macaroni Grill supplies reading glasses and large-print menus on request. Target is modifying its labeling on prescription bottles by putting the most important information— patient name, medication, dosage—in large boldface capital letters.

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Some remote controls and cell phones now have large text and buttons specifically designed for this older audience.

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Some laundry labels on garments use larger print.

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Product packaging is beginning to avoid yellows and blues, colors that are more difficult for older eyes to distinguish.

The 76 million baby boomers account for about half of U.S. consumer spending. Smart companies want their share of that money and are willing to adapt their products. Adapted from Katie Hafner, “Their Parents’ Eyes,” New York Times, August 4, 2007, B1; and Ellen Byron, “From Diapers to ‘Depends’: Marketers Discreetly Retool for Aging Boomers,” Wall Street Journal, February 5, 2011, http://online.wsj.com/article/ SB100014240527487040 136045761043942090629 96.html.

The Communication Process

Levels of Design

LO 6-2

Visual communications expert Charles Kostelnick distinguishes four levels of design. These levels provide an organized way to think about the design choices you can make in your own documents, presentations, and visuals. They’re also useful when you analyze the documents you encounter in a professional setting: one of the best ways to get ideas for your own document designs is to analyze the design elements in successful documents. When you look at communication design, look for Kostelnick’s four levels:5

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Intra—Design choices for individual letters and words. Intra-level design choices include the font and its size you choose; whether you use bold, italics, or color changes to emphasize key words; and the way you use capital letters. The serif font used for body text on this page is an intra-level choice, as is the sans serif font used for headings.

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Inter—Design choices for blocks of text. Inter-level design choices include the ways you use headings, white space, indents, lists, and even text boxes. The headings and bulleted lists that organize information on these pages are interlevel choices.

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Extra—Design choices for graphics that go with the text. Extra-level design choices include the way you use pictures, photographs, data displays, charts, and graphs, and the ways in which you emphasize information on those graphics. The figures in this chapter are extra-level design choices.

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Supra—Design choices for entire documents. Supra-level design choices include paper size, headers and footers, and the index and table of contents, as well as color schemes and layout grids that define the look of all sections of a document. The placement of the page numbers in this book, the two-column layout grid on all of the pages in this chapter, and the navigation text in the header on this page are supra-level choices.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention poster in Figure 6.1 illustrates all levels of design. At the intra-level, this poster uses a sans serif typeface throughout the whole document. Other intra-level elements include the boldface orange sentences and the gray subsentences that are set in a larger typesize than the body text. Inter-level elements involve the centered text throughout the top of the poster and chunking text above and below the image. It also includes the bullet points used to organize material and the text box that sets off this material from the background. The main background image containing a sudsy bar of soap, as well as the image of the father helping his son wash his hands, are part of the extra-level. These images help reinforce the textual message that encourages viewers to wash their hands appropriately. Supra-level elements include the color scheme and the size of the poster, which measures 33" x 42.5" so that all the information can be clearly seen when posted. Another unifying piece of information on a supralevel that can be found on all CDC promotional materials is their blue logo in the bottom left corner. Visually, this information is treated like a page footer and can be found somewhere on every piece of published CDC promotional material.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1

Designing Documents

All Four Levels of Design in Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Poster

Source: “Stop Germs! Stay Healthy! Wash Your Hands!” Poster, accessed November 2, 2013, http://www.cdc.gov/ handwashing/pdf/wash-your-hands-poster.pdf.

Guidelines for Document Design

LO 6-3

Use the guidelines in Figure6.2 to create visually attractive documents.

1. Use White Space White space—the empty space on the page—makes material easier to read by emphasizing the material that it separates from the rest of the text. To create white space, ■

Use headings.

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Use a mix of paragraph lengths (most no longer than seven typed lines). It’s OK for a paragraph or two to be just one sentence. First and last paragraphs, in particular, should be short.

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Use lists. • Use tabs or indents—not spacing—to align items vertically. • Use numbered lists when the number or sequence of items is exact. • Use bullets (large dots or squares like those in this list) when the number and sequence don’t matter.

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Figure 6.2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Guidelines for Page Design

Use white space. Use headings. Limit the use of words set in all capital letters. Use no more than two fonts in a single document. Decide whether to justify margins. Put important elements in the top left and lower right quadrants. Use a grid to unify graphic elements. Use highlighting, decorative devices, and color in moderation.

When you use a list, make sure all the items are parallel (see “Parallel Structure” in Chapter 5) and fit into the structure of the sentence that introduces the list. Increasing white space can easily improve the look of your message. Figure6.3 shows an original document. Notice how this document is visually uninviting. In Figure6.4, the same document has improved white space by using lists,

Figure 6.3

A Document with Poor Visual Impact

tters pital le Full ca tle hard make ti to read

MONEY DEDUCTED FROM YOUR WAGES TO PAY CREDITORS

When you buy goods on credit, the store will sometimes ask you to sign a Wage Assignment form allowing it to deduct money from your wages if you do not pay your bill. When you buy on credit, you sign a contract agreeing to pay a certain amount each week or month until you have paid all you owe. The Wage Assignment Form is separate. It must contain the name of your present employer, your social security number, the amount of money loaned, the rate of interest, the date when payments are due, and your signature. The words "Wage Assignment" must be printed at the top of the form and also near the line for your signature. Even if you have signed a Wage Assignment agreement, Roysner will not withhold part of your Long wages unless all of the following conditions are met: 1. You have to be more than paragraph forty days late in payment of what you owe; 2. Roysner has to receive a correct statement of the amount you are in default and a copy of the Wage Assignment form; is visually and 3. You and Roysner must receive a notice from the creditor at least twenty days uninviting in advance stating that the creditor plans to make a demand on your wages. This twenty-day notice gives you a chance to correct the problems yourself. If these conditions are all met, Roysner must withhold 15% of each paycheck until your bill is paid and give this money to your creditor. If you think you are not late or that you do not owe the amount stated, you can argue against it by filing a legal document called a "defense." Once you file a defense, Roysner will not withhold any money from you. However, be sure you are right before you file a defense. If you are wrong, you have to pay not only what you owe but also all legal costs for both yourself and the creditor. If you are right, the creditor t has to pay all these costs. portan Im tion informa find to is hard

Chapter 6

Figure 6.4

Designing Documents

165

A Document Revised to Improve Visual Impact

First lette

Money Deducted from Your Wages of each main italized— to Pay Creditors word cap onto Title split s e n li two

When you buy goods on credit, the store will sometimes ask you to sign a Wage Assignment form allowing it to deduct money from your wages if you do not pay your bill. s divide Heading to Have You Signed a Wage Assignment Form? document in s k n chu

When you buy on credit, you sign a contract agreeing to pay a certain amount each week or month until you have paid all you owe. The Wage Assignment Form is separate. It must contain ce list • The name of your present employer, ingle-spa S h it s are List w when item • Your social security number, re e h w bullets short. • The amount of money loaned, order of • The rate of interest, items • The date when payments are due, and doesn't • Your signature. matter The words "Wage Assignment" must be printed at the top of the form and also near the line for your signature. must be eadings H Here all parallel. tions are ques

When Would Money Be Deducted from Your Wages to Pay a Creditor? Even if you have signed a Wage Assignment agreement, Roysner will not withhold ace White sp part of your wages unless all of the following conditions are met: n e 1. You have to be more than 40 days late in payment of what you owe;

betwe items es emphasiz them

2. Roysner has to receive a correct statement of the amount you are in default and a copy of the Wage Assignment form; andDouble-space between items in list when

d Numbere re e h w t s li r number o 3. f o r e ord tter items ma

most items are two lines or longer.

You and Roysner must receive a notice from the creditor at least 20 days in advance stating that the creditor plans to make a demand on your wage. This 20-day notice gives you a chance to correct the problem yourself.

If these conditions are all met, Roysner must withhold fifteen percent (15%) of each pay-check until your bill is paid and give this money to your creditor.

What Should You Do If You Think the Wage Assignment Is Incorrect? If you think you are not late or that you do not owe the amount stated, you can argue against it by filing a legal document called a "defense." Once you file a defense, Roysner will not withhold any money from you. However, be sure you are right before you file a defense. If you are wrong, you have to pay not only what you owe but also all legal costs for both yourself and the creditor. If you are right, the creditor has to pay all these costs.

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Design and Driver Safety The New York City Department of Transportation decided to revise 250,000 street signs throughout the city. The old signs used all capital letters. The new signs will use a font called Clearview and feature both capital and lowercase letters. The newly designed street signs are expected to improve safety, according to the Federal Highway Administration. Drivers will be able to decipher words more easily because of their shapes and, in turn, pay more attention to the road. The price to replace all of the signs is anticipated to be $27.5 million. The project will be completed by 2018. Adapted from “New York to Replace 250,000 Street Signs,” United Press International, article published October 1, 2010, http://www.upi .com/Odd_News/2010/10/01/ New-York-to-replace250000-street-signs/ UPI-10711285863676/.

Part 2

The Communication Process

headings, and shorter paragraphs. Audiences scan documents for information, so anything you can do visually to help ease their reading will reflect positively on you as the communicator. Keep in mind that these devices take space. When saving space is essential, it’s better to cut the text and incorporate white space and headings. Some researchers strongly argue that white space should never be your enemy.6 A clear mark of an amateur document designer is one who tries to fill an entire page with visuals and text leaving the audience no room to breathe.

2. Use Headings Headings are words, short phrases, or short sentences that group points and divide your document into sections. Headings enable your reader to see at a glance how the document is organized, to turn quickly to sections of special interest, and to compare and contrast points more easily. Headings also break up the page, making it look less formidable and more interesting. Psychological research has shown that our short-term memories can hold only seven plus or minus two bits of information.7 Only after those bits are processed and put into long-term memory can we assimilate new information. Large amounts of information will be easier to process if they are grouped into three to seven chunks rather than presented as individual items. To use headings effectively, ■

Make headings specific.

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Make each heading cover all the material until the next heading.

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Keep headings at any one level parallel.

Research continues to show that headings help readers. In a study that examined forensic child abuse reports from Canadian children’s hospitals, researchers discovered that headings play an important role. Headings and subheadings helped improve the accessibility of information about the severity of the child’s injuries between the physicians who authored the reports and the social workers, lawyers, and police officers who later used them.8

3. Limit the Use of Words Set in All Capital Letters We recognize words partly by their shapes.9 (See Figure 6.5.) In capitals, all words are rectangular; letters lose the descenders and ascenders that make reading faster and more accurate.10 In addition, many people interpret text in full capitals as “shouting,” especially when that text appears in online documents. In those cases, full capitals might elicit a negative response from your audience. Use full capitals sparingly, if at all.

4. Use No More than Two Fonts in a Single Document Fonts are unified styles of type. Popular fonts are Times Roman, Calibri, Palatino, Helvetica, or Arial, and each comes in various sizes and usually in

Figure 6.5

Full Capitals Hide the Shape of a Word

FULL CAPITALS HIDE THE SHAPE OF A WORD AND SLOW READING 19% .

Chapter 6

Figure 6.6

Designing Documents

Examples of Different Fonts

bold and italic. In fixed fonts every letter takes the same space; an i takes the same space as a w. Courier and Prestige Elite are fixed fonts. Most fonts are proportional and allow wider letters to take more space than narrower letters. Times Roman, Palatino, Helvetica, and Arial are proportional fonts. Most business documents use no more than two fonts. Serif fonts have little extensions, called serifs, from the main strokes. (In Figure6.6, look at the feet on the r’s in New Courier and the flick on the top of the d in Lucinda.) New Courier, Elite, Times Roman, Palatino, and Lucinda Calligraphy are serif fonts. Helvetica, Arial, Geneva, and Technical are sans serif fonts since they lack serifs (sans is French for without). Sans serif fonts are good for titles and tables. You should choose the fonts you use carefully, because they shape reader response just as font size does. Research suggests that people respond positively to fonts that fit the genre and purpose of the document.11 For example, a font like Broadway (see Figure6.6) is appropriate for a headline in a newsletter, but not for the body text of an e-mail. Twelve-point type is usually ideal for letters, memos, e-mails, and reports. Smaller type is harder to read, especially for older readers. You can create emphasis and levels of headings by using bold, italics, and different sizes. Bold is easier to read than italics, so use bolding if you need only one method to emphasize text. In a complex document, use bigger type for main headings and slightly smaller type for subheadings and text. If your material will not fit in the available pages, cut it. Putting some sections in tiny type saves space but creates a negative response—a negative response that may extend to the organization that produced the document.

5. Decide Whether to Justify Margins Word-processing programs allow you to use full justification so that type lines up evenly on both the right and left margins. This paragraph you are reading justifies both margins. Margins justified only on the left, sometimes called ragged right margins, have lines ending in different places. In this chapter, sidebar columns use ragged right margins. Use full justification when you ■

Can use proportional fonts.

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Want a more formal look.

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Want to use as few pages as possible.

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Cultural Differences in Document Design Cultural differences in document design are based on reading practices and experiences with other documents. Language is one source of these differences. For example, English and other European languages are written in horizontal lines moving from left to right down the page. Hebrew and Arabic languages are read from right to left. This affects where readers of these languages look first when they see a pageof text. People in the United States focus first on the left side of a website. Middle Eastern people focus first on the right side, so websites in Arabic and Hebrew orient text, links, and graphics from right to left. Translations also affect the layout of a document. To convey the same message, Spanish and French take up more room than English does. Writing concise text for brochures, packages, and web pages is more challenging in the wordier languages. The problem is even more complex in designing bilingual or multilingual documents. For example, a company selling in Canada must use both English and French on its packages, and the French type must be printed at least as large as the English. On some products, such as a bottle of medicine or perfume, this requirement leaves little room for fancy graphics. Adapted from Albert N. Badre, “The Effects of Cross Cultural Interface Design Orientation on World Wide Web User Performance,” accessed May 8, 2013, ftp://ftp.cc.gatech .edu/pub/gvu/tr/2001/01-03.html; and Pan Demetrakakes, “Multilingual Labeling Broadens Product Appeal,” Iverson, accessed May 8, 2013, http://www.iversonlang .com/resources/pdf/ Multilingual.pdf.

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http://infomap .com/en/the-methoden/before-a-afterexamples Information Mapping uses grids and tables to present complex information in an easy-to-find format. Review some of the “before” and “after” examples on the Information Mapping website, and notice how the “after” documents make strong use of tables, lists, and white space to draw your attention to important points.

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The Communication Process

Use ragged right margins when you ■

Cannot use a proportional font.

■

Want an informal look.

■

Use very short line lengths.

6. Put Important Elements in the Top Left and Lower Right Quadrants Readers of English are accustomed to reading pages of text from left to right, developing this habit over a lifetime. Effective document designers tap into our habit. They know that we start in the upper left-hand corner of the page, read to the right, move down, and then to the right again. Actually, the eye moves in a Z pattern.12 (See Figure6.7.) Therefore, the four quadrants of the page carry different visual weights. The top left quadrant, where the eye starts, is the most important; the bottom right quadrant, where the eye ends, is next most important.

7. Use a Grid to Unify Graphic Elements

http://www .degraeve.com/ color-palette and http:// p:// :// www.colorhunter.com// Do you have a hard time generating aesthetically pleasing color schemes? Have you ever wanted to create a color scheme that matches a prominent photo in your document? The Color Palette Generator and Color Hunter websites allow you to upload a photo with a .jpg extension from any URL address. After you complete this step, the websites create a color palette that matches the primary colors found within the photo.

Many document designers use a grid system to design pages. In its simplest form, a grid imposes two or three imaginary columns on the page. In more complex grids, these columns can be further subdivided. Then all the graphic elements— text indentations, headings, visuals, and so on—are lined up within the columns. The resulting symmetry creates a more pleasing page and unifies long documents. Figure6.8 uses grids to organize a page with visuals and a newsletter page.

8. Use Highlighting, Decorative Devices, and Color in Moderation Many word-processing programs have arrows, pointing fingers, and a host of other dingbats that you can insert. Clip art packages and presentation software allow you to insert more and larger images into your text. Used in moderation, highlighting and decorative devices make pages more interesting. However, don’t overdo them. A page or screen that uses every possible decorating device just looks busy and hard to read. Color works well to highlight points. Use color for overviews and main headings, not for small points. Red is appropriate for warnings in North Figure 6.7

Put Important Elements in the Top Left and Bottom Right Quadrants

Eye movement on the page follows a Z pattern

Blue quadrants are most important area of the page

Chapter 6

Figure 6.8

Designing Documents

Examples of Grids to Design Pages

Two -Column Grid

Three-Column Grid

Title of the Document

Heading Heading Heading Heading Heading

America. Since the connotations of colors vary among cultures, check with experts before you use color for international or multicultural audiences. (For more information on color, see the discussion in Chapter 16 as well as the web links in this chapter.)

Using Software Programs for Creating Document Designs Many software programs enable you to create the documents described in the next few sections of this chapter. For example, for creating print documents, you could use Pages, Word, Publisher, InDesign, or Illustrator, or open source programs such as Writer or Google Docs. For building websites, you might use programs like Dreamweaver, WebEasy, or Website Creator, or open source programs such as Drupal or WordPress. These software programs are just a sampling; many more programs are available. Each will vary in functionality and price. And each will come with advantages and disadvantages based on your design needs. However, even the simplest programs will give you enough design control to put into practice the guidelines discussed in the previous section. Proficiency in one or more of the software programs mentioned above can make your employer view you more favorably. Gaining software proficiencies can also give you an advantage over other job seekers if you list them on your résumé when you’re on the job market.

Designing Brochures

LO 6-4

Designing a good brochure incorporates all elements of document design. To create an effective brochure, you must analyze your rhetorical situation, draft the text, select appropriate visuals, create the design, and print.

Analyzing Your Rhetorical Situation In all forms of business communication, you should begin by considering your audience and purpose. A brochure designed to promote awareness of your

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Standardizing Color Pantone is in the business of helping organizations identify, match, and communicate colors. They help graphic firms and printers with ink colors (2,868 different colors) and manufacturers with plastic colors. They provide 2,100 colors, in cotton or paper format, for designers in fashion, home furnishings, and interior design industries. Pantone View Colors, a “biannual trend forecasting tool that offers seasonal color direction and inspiration 24 months in advance,” is used by apparel, cosmetics, and home furnishing industries to ensure they offer products in the most current colors. The Pantone Color Institute conducts color research, including the study of how color influences thoughts, emotions, and physical reactions. Pantone, “Corporate Overview,” accessed August 13, 2013, http://www.pantone.com/ pages/pantone.aspx? pg519306.

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The Power of Color on Nutrition Color is such a powerful design tool that it may impact choices the next time you’re standing in line at the grocery store. A research experiment discovered that people were more likely to perceive a green nutrition label on a candy bar as healthier than a red label despite the fact that each conveyed the same information. The experiment was run a second time, but this time replacing the red label with a white label. The researcher discovered that people who identified healthy eating as an important factor in their lives were more likely to choose the green label over the white label. The findings suggest a strong connection between the color green and people’s perceptions of healthy. In what way do these findings raise ethical concerns about the colors for nutritional labels? Adapted from Jonathon P. Schuldt, “Does Green Mean Healthy? Nutrition Label Color Affects Perceptions of Healthfulness,” Health Communication (2013): 1-8: doi: 10.1080/10410236 .2012.725270.

The Communication Process

company will have a different look than a brochure telling people how to do something and persuading them to do it. Try to identify a central selling point, an overarching benefit the audience will get. Identify any objections the audience may have and brainstorm ways to deal with these in your brochure. Finally, consider how the audience will get the brochure and where they will use it.

Drafting the Text Once you have developed a clear understanding of your rhetorical situation, draft the text to see how much room you need. If you have a lot of text, you’ll need to use a bigger brochure layout or a series of brochures. However, make sure to tighten your writing by following the guidelines in Chapter 5. Use you-attitude and positive emphasis throughout. People are more likely to read brochures if the text engages their attention. So be sure to use interesting headlines and selling points by making them informative as well as attention-grabbing, funny, or out of the ordinary. Or you might use sidebars with testimonial quotes, examples, or vignettes. You could add elements to get your readers involved with your brochure, such as a coupon for a free or discount offer, a quiz, or a puzzle. Interesting stories can also hold your readers’ attention.

Selecting Appropriate Visuals After the text is drafted, choose appropriate visuals to accompany it. Use a visual that tells a story. Remember that the visual has to work for the audience. A photo of a campus landmark may not mean much to an audience thinking about attending a summer program on campus. For additional information about incorporating visuals, including ethics, see Chapter 16.

Creating the Design Before inserting textual and visual elements into your brochure, you might use thumbnail sketches to test layouts. You will need to choose the image you want to project for yourself or your organization. (Clean and clear? Postmodern and hip?) Make every choice—color, font, layout, paper—a conscious one. The three-fold brochure shown in Figure6.9 is the most common layout, but many other arrangements are possible. Put your central selling point on the cover. Then, use a grid to align the elements within the panels. Make sure the Z pattern emphasizes important points for each spread the reader encounters. In a three-fold brochure, the Z pattern needs to work for the cover alone, for inside pages 1 and 2 (as the

Figure 6.9

Page Setup for a Three-Fold Brochure on 8.5"311" Paper

Side 1

Side 2

Folded Inside p. 3

Inside p. 2

Back cover

Cover

Inside p. 1

Inside p. 3

Inside p. 4

Cover

When creating a three-fold brochure, mimic this page setup so your final document prints correctly.

Inside p. 2

Chapter 6

Designing Documents

reader begins to unfold the brochure), and for inside pages 1, 3, and 4 (when the brochure is fully opened). Follow these additional design principles when creating your brochure: ■

Use proportional fonts.

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Use two fonts—one for headings and one for body text—to create visual variety.

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Avoid italic type and underlining, which can make text hard to read.

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Use color effectively (by using the color scheme designers mentioned in the sidebar on page 168).

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Repeat design elements (headings, small photos) across panels to create a unified look.

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Create contrast (between text and visuals, between a larger font for headings and a smaller one for text).

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Include enough white space—use lists and headings or short paragraphs with extra space between them. Ragged right margins generally work better with short line lengths.

Printing the Brochure Printing can be accomplished on your personal ink-jet printer. For better laserquality results, however, you might go to FedEx Office, Staples, OfficeMax, or Copyworks. If your organization demands an even higher professional look or you have thousands of copies to print, take your brochure to a commercial printer. If you opt for four-color printing, use glossy paper to add a professional tone to your design. Four-color printing will look best; however, it will also cost you or your organization the most money. To get the effect of color with the least expense, use black print on colored paper.

Designing Infographics

LO 6-5

Infographics, as the combined words imply, are information graphics. They inform and educate an audience about a specific topic using a mixture of statistics, text, color, and visuals (see Figure6.10). They often present the complex findings from both qualitative and quantitative research studies in an easily digestible format. Infographics thrive in the digital age because they are so easy to share, forward, post, and tweet. While infographics were formerly found mainly in newspapers and newsmagazines, professional organizations are now quickly adopting them. Some businesses, such as Wells Fargo, BP, Sony, and JPMorgan Chase & Co., use them in their annual reports to communicate with shareholders. Other organizations use infographics on their websites and on social media pages to connect with customers and promote their business. Infographics exist on nearly any business-related topic you can image, whether about business cards, CEOs, proposals, or globalization to name a few. (See Figure6.10 for an infographic on salary science.) Some job hunters are even creating infographic résumés to promote their accomplishments and to get noticed by potential employers.13 Like creating a brochure, designing infographics incorporates all elements of document design. To create an effective infographic, you must analyze your rhetorical situation, research your topic, find visuals, draft the text, and put it all together.

Analyzing Your Rhetorical Situation You should begin by considering your audience, context, and purposes of the infographic. Who do you want to look at your infographic? Where do you envision they will come in contact with it? What message do you want to get

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http://colorscheme designer.com Have you ever wondered how color documents might look to a person with color deficiencies? Well, now you can see! This website provides the ability to create a color scheme you might incorporate into your professional documents. It also has a drop-down menu that allows you to see how your color creations will be perceived by people with color deficiencies. Since nearly 14.5% of the population has some sort of color deficiency, you should consider how the colors you choose in your designs may affect your audience.

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Figure 6.10

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The Communication Process

An Example of an Infographic

Source: http://salarytutor.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/salary-negotiation-infographic.png. Reprinted with permission.

http://digital gallery.nypl.org/ nypldigital/index.cfm,, http://www .unclesamsphotos.com, and http://meta.wikimedia.org/ wiki/Free_image_resources These websites offer many royalty-free visuals that you can incorporate into your designs without violating copyright laws. You can also search other popular sites such as Flickr and search for photos that have a creative commons license.

across? To have cohesion in your final design, you need to be sure you clearly understand what you’re trying to communicate and why before starting the design process.

Researching Your Topic After you determine a topic, you need to research it. The best infographics are grounded in solid research. Similar to any other kind of research, information on infographics should come from reliable sources and accurate data. Keep a running works cited list during this research phase that you can later place on the bottom of your infographic to gain credibility as the creator. During the research phase, you also need to find an informative story within the qualitative and/or quantitative data. For example, if the topic of your infographic is negative news messages, what story are you going to tell on that infographic? What research says about buffers, apologies, or alternatives or something entirely different? As you research, you will probably want to narrow your topic. If you try to communicate too much about your selected topic, your audience will quickly become overwhelmed or, worse, confused and stop looking at your design.

Finding Visuals Find visuals that help educate the audience about your topic. Since infographics are a visual genre, the images you use should help communicate your message. You’ll have to make choices about the type of information you’re going to display. (For additional information on using visuals, see Chapter 16). As you do for textual material, be sure to cite all visuals that you are borrowing. Many royalty-free images are available online (see sidebar on this page).

Chapter 6

Designing Documents

If you have difficulty finding appropriate visuals for your topic, you may consider designing your own. Many infographics use line drawings or other graphic elements to communicate information.

Drafting the Text Unlike brochures or web pages, which mainly use text to communicate information, infographics rely on visuals and design elements to do a lot of the work. As such, text often serves a supporting role. The text you do use should be clear and concise, and of course well written. Any small errors in spelling or grammar quickly become magnified on an infographic. You should also develop a catchy title that immediately grabs the audience’s attention and creates excitement about viewing your infographic. Use other body text to offer supporting details for the message that visuals are supposed to communicate.

Putting It All Together Before combining visuals and text into your infographic, you might do a few sketches to test layout ideas. The size of your infographic will depend on where and how the audience will view your final product. Many infographics are found on the web, so the size dimensions can be determined by the amount of information you have to convey. However, if you plan to print the infographic, you will have to create a design that conforms to standard sizes of paper. After your sketches are complete, combine the visuals and textual elements in a software program of your choice. Incorporate different shapes, lines, typeface sizes, and colors to direct the viewer’s sight through the infographic. The infographic should have a clear hierarchy of presented information; the audience should never be confused about where to look next. You will need to determine the tone you want your infographic to project for yourself or your organization. Make every choice on the infographic— color, font, visuals, text size—a conscious one. Your choices should always resonate with the intended audience and purpose of your infographic. And be sure that once you get everything on the infographic, you make a strong, clear point; the audience should never wonder why you are presenting a certain piece of information or how it connects. Be a cautious, ethical designer of infographics. Since visuals generally gain more importance and emotional impact than their textual counterparts,14 designers of infographics can easily mislead their audience. Avoid presenting unethical information or distorting data to make a stronger point and attract attention. The information infographics offer needs to be trustworthy and should help an audience build trust in you as the creator. Follow these additional guidelines when designing your infographic: ■

Use a cohesive color scheme. (See the color scheme design websites mentioned in the sidebar on page 168.)

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Limit your design to two fonts to create visual variety but also cohesiveness.

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Avoid italic type and underlining, which can make text hard to read.

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Repeat design elements (headings, shapes, etc.) to create a unified look.

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Include enough white space so that the audience doesn’t feel overwhelmed with your design.

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Incorporate citations for all researched text and visuals along the bottom. Use in-text citations to show the audience what material came from which source.

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http://www .coolinfographics .com, http://www.good.is/ infographics, http://www .visual.ly, and http://www .dailyinfographic.com Check out Cool Infographics, Good Infographics, Visual.ly, or Daily Infographic for examples of infographics. These websites offer repositories of thousands of infographics, some with commentary on what makes the included infographics effective.

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http://www.oswd .org Open Source Web Design has thousands of clean, professional design templates for web pages available for download. Most of these templates are free; the authors ask only that you keep their contact information on the pages you create using the template.

http://www.usable web.com/ Usable Web offers a collection of links about information architecture, human factors, user interface issues, and usable design specific to the World Wide Web. Log on to find tips on how to improve the overall design and look of your website and its features.

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The Communication Process

Designing Web Pages

LO 6-6

Like effective brochures and infographics, web pages also incorporate principles of rhetorical analysis and document design. To create effective web pages, you must attract and maintain the audience’s attention, create a usable home page, provide easy navigation, follow conventions, and increase accessibility.

Attracting and Maintaining Attention The amount of time you have to attract and keep an audience’s attention on your website is minimal. Researchers tracked how long users took to read or scan web pages; 52% of the visits were shorter than 10 seconds. In fact, 25% were less than four seconds. Only 10% were longer than two minutes. Therefore, any design flaws could cause audiences to leave your website immediately.15 For websites viewed on mobile phones, the experience also needs to be simple. Steve Yankovich, vice president for eBay mobile, states, “We’ve found that people will give us 30–60 seconds to connect them with the things they need and love.”16 Jakob Nielsen, a web guru and usability consultant, provides research showing that web audiences use an F-shaped pattern when viewing web pages. First, they quickly read across the top of the page. Then they move down the page some and read across again, but for a shorter distance. Finally, they scan down the left side. All this happens quickly. The F-shaped pattern means that your most important information must be at the top of the page. In addition, make sure that headings, paragraphs, and items in lists start with words important to your reader.17

Creating a Usable Home Page Your home page is crucial. Not only must it open quickly, but visitors also must be able to find what they want quickly. Studies show that users grow impatient after waiting 10 seconds for a page to load, and most will leave the site immediately.18 In addition, first-time visitors tend not to scroll down beyond the first screen of text. To keep visitors around long enough to find (or buy) what they want, make using the first screen extremely easy. ■

Provide an introductory statement or graphic orienting the surfing reader to the organization sponsoring the page.

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Make completing a task as easy as possible.

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Offer an overview of the content of your page, with links to take readers to the parts that interest them.

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Provide navigation bars vertically on the left of the screen or horizontally on the top and bottom. A site index and an internal search engine are valuable tools.

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Make it clear what readers will get if they click on a link.

Ineffective phrasing: Employment. Openings and skill levels are determined by each office. Better phrasing:

Employment. Openings listed by skill level and by location.

Chapter 6

Designing Documents

Providing Easy Navigation While websites have increased the value they have to offer, the biggest problem now is navigation, especially as sites grow and become more complex. A web page’s navigation should be intuitive to the audience and make accessing information easy. If the audience has to work too hard to figure out how to use your web page, chances are they will leave the site.

Following Conventions Jakob Nielsen urges his readers to follow conventions of web pages and get back to design basics. He reminds designers that users want quality basics. Here are some of the top web design mistakes he lists: ■

Bad search engines.

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Links that don’t change color when visited.

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Large text blocks.

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Fixed font size.

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Content that doesn’t answer users’ questions.

He also cautions against violating design conventions. Users will expect your website to act like the other sites they visit. If it doesn’t, the site will be harder to use and visitors will leave. Nielsen warns that some conventions, such as banner ads, have outlived their usefulness. Banner blindness is so prevalent that anything that looks like a banner will be ignored, as one nonprofit health site discovered. The site had a box at the top of the home page telling users what to do if they thought they were having a heart attack, but research showed that users were ignoring the box because they thought it was an ad.19 As you design web pages, use the following guidelines: ■

Use a white or light background for easy scanning.

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Keep graphics small. Specify the width and height so that the text can load while the graphics come in.

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Provide visual variety in your text. Use indentations, bulleted or numbered lists, and headings. Start lists with impact words—remember the F pattern.

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Unify multiple pages with a small banner, graphic, or label so surfers know who sponsors each page.

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Use alternative text (“ALT tag”) for visually impaired viewers.

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On each page, provide a link to the home page.

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Keep animation to a minimum, and allow viewers to control its use. If you have an animated site introduction page, include an easy-to-spot “Skip Intro” button.

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If your web pages include music or sound effects, put an Off button where the user can see it immediately. Computer users may be at work, in a library, or at another location where your brand’s theme song would be disruptive—or embarrassing.

Appropriately enough, the web has many additional resources about web page design guidelines; on technical pages regarding HTML, XML, CSS, and Java; and on web page design programs such as WordPress, Dreamweaver, and Drupal.

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Making Your Web Page Accessible Users with hearing impairments need captions for audio material on the web. Blind users need words, not images. Words can be voiced by a screen reader or translated into Braille text. To make your web page accessible for people with vision impairments, ■

Put a link to a text-only version of the site in the upper left-hand corner.

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Put navigation links, a site map, and search box at the top of the screen, preferably in the upper left-hand corner.

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Arrange navigation links alphabetically so that blind users can use a screen reader to jump to the links they want.

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Provide alternative text (an “Alt tag”) for all images, applets, and submit buttons.

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Provide a static alternative to flash or animation.

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In hypertext links, use text that makes sense when read alone. A person listening to the audio will not understand “Click here.” “Click to order a copy” or “Click for details” offers a better clue.

The Web Accessibility Initiative (www.w3.org) points out that accessible websites are easier for a variety of people to use—not just those with obvious impairments.

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http://www.usability .gov Usability.gov offers a repository of best practices for creating user-centered and accessible websites. Log on to find strategy tips, templates, and researched guidelines on how to improve your website design.

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Increasing Accessibility As you design a website, you also should try to make it accessible to people with disabilities. The law is beginning to consider a website a public space and therefore subject to the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act. Target settled a class action suit with the National Federation of the Blind by agreeing to pay $6 million in damages and to make its site more accessible. More legal proceedings got Apple to agree to make iTunes more accessible. One of the most sought-after features in these legal actions is text attached to links and graphics that can be accessed by screen-reading software.20 For more ways to make your web page accessible, see the sidebar “Making Your Web Page Accessible” on page 175. One additional concern in terms of accessibility is the location where people view your web pages. With the proliferation of smartphones and tablets, you need to optimize your website for these alternative viewing platforms.

Testing the Design for Usability

LO 6-7

Usability testing, or assessing your documents with real audiences, is an important step in document design. A document that looks pretty may or may not work for the audience. To know whether your design is functional, test it with your audience. After collecting feedback from both customers and employees, Delta Air Lines reimagined the design of its boarding passes. The new look, as shown in Figure6.11, features a clear hierarchy of information, less clutter, more white space, only one bar code, and a new sans serif typeface. These choices make the new design user-friendly for both Delta employees and passengers.21 According to Jakob Nielsen, testing a draft with five users will reveal 85% of the problems with the document.22 If time and money permit additional testing, revise the document and test the new version with another five users. Test the document with the people who are most likely to have trouble with it: very old or young readers, people with little education, people who read English as a second language. Three kinds of tests yield particularly useful information: ■

Watch someone as he or she uses the document to do a task. Where does the user pause, reread, or seem confused? How long does it take? Does the document enable the user to complete the task accurately?

■

Ask the user to “think aloud” while completing the task, interrupt the user at key points to ask what he or she is thinking, or ask the user to describe the thought process after completing the document and the task. Learning the user’s thought processes is important, since a user may get the right answer for the wrong reasons. In such a case, the design still needs work.

■

Ask users to put a plus sign in the margins by any part of the document they like or agree with and a minus sign by any part of the document that seems confusing or wrong. Then use interviews or focus groups to find out the reasons for the plus and minus judgments.

Jakob Nielsen also urges usability testing for web design. In fact, he recommends testing at various stages of the design process—good advice for complex paper documents as well. He also warns that the best usability testing involves watching people use the communication. Listening to what they think they do can be misleading.23 (Would you have told a researcher that you look at a web page using an F pattern?)

Chapter 6

Figure 6.11

DATE

DL10

02FEB

OPERATED BY

177

Before (top) and After (bottom) Redesign of Delta’s Boarding Pass

BOARDING PASS SKY PRIORITY 1 006 2144698802 0 GKAWEZ

TESTACCT/QA XXXXXXX DL2397768025 H2GB FLIGHT

Designing Documents

CLASS ORIGIN

DEPARTS

ATLANTA

1035P

DESTINATION

BRD TIME

H COACH

DELTA AIR LINES INC

BOARDING PASS SKY PRIORITY TESTACCT/QA XXXXXXX DL2397768025

LONDON-HEATHROW 940P DEPARTURE GATE - **SUBJECT TO CHANGE** SOUTH TERMINAL

SEAT

20E

FLIGHT

DATE

DL10

02FEB

ORIGIN

SEAT

20E

ATLANTA SKY

SKY

DESTINATION

LONDON-HEATHROW OPERATED BY DELTA AIR LINES INC

BCH ATL001

DELTA SKY CLUB ONE-DAY PASS

XXXXXXXXX

INTL - VERIFY PASSPORT WHEELCHAIR REQUESTED / SPECIAL MEAL REQUESTED

MARKETING DECODER Airline boarding pass 5

FRI, MAR 30, 2012

DIAMOND/ELITEPLUS/SKY CLUB

GT9549 / SKY PRIORITY

JFK LAX NYC-KENNEDY (JFK)

4 Los Angeles(LAX) FLIGHT DL120

BOARDING DOCUMENT

SkyMilles #xxxxxx9718

Diamond Testacct 2 1 BOARDING

8:20am

*Gates may change. Check airport monitors.

GATE*

ZONE

Sky

SEAT

24C Economy (H)

Depart Arrive

Fri, 9:00am Fri, 12:20pm

Fly paperless: www.delta.com/app

Ticket#: 006 2144236059

1. Airport codes are in large lettering because consumers find the codes ‘fun’ and ‘insidery.’ 2. Passenger names are shown with first name followed by last name in larger lettering. 3. Instead of two bar codes, there is just one. 4. Destination cities are shown in a larger font than departure cities because ‘people know what airport they are currently in.’ 4. Type is a ‘Whitney’ font created for Delta. 5. Design avoids large images, which require ink blocks that jam some airport printers.

Summary by Learning Objectives LO 6-1

■

Why document design is important and how to incorporate it into the writing process.

Good document design can save time and money, and prevent legal problems. Effective design groups ideas visually, making the structure of a document more inviting and obvious so the document is easier to read. The best documents are created when you think about design at each stage of the writing process.

• As you plan, think about the needs of your audience. • As you write, incorporate lists, headings, and visuals. • Get feedback from people who will be using your document. • As you revise, check your draft against the guidelines in this chapter. ■

Effective design relies heavily on conventions, which vary by audience.

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The Communication Process

The four levels of document design, and how they can help you critique documents.

The four levels of design—intra, inter, extra, and supra—help you organize and analyze design choices. LO 6-3

Guidelines for document design.

These guidelines help writers create visually attractive documents: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Use white space. Use headings. Limit the use of words set in all capital letters. Use no more than two fonts in a single document. Decide whether to justify margins. Put important elements in the top left and lower right quadrants. Use a grid to unify visuals and other graphic elements. Use highlighting, decorative devices, and color in moderation.

LO 6-4

How to design brochures.

To create an effective brochure, you must analyze your rhetorical situation, draft the text, select appropriate visuals, create the design, and print. LO 6-5

How to design infographics.

To create effective infographics, you must analyze your rhetorical situation, research your topic, find visuals, draft the text, and put it all together. LO 6-6

How to design web pages.

To create effective web pages, you must attract and maintain the audience’s attention, create a usable home page, provide easy navigation, follow conventions, and increase accessibility. LO 6-7

How to do basic usability testing on your documents.

Usability testing is assessing your documents with real audiences. To conduct a usability test, observe people reading the document or using it to complete a task.

Continuing Case The All-Weather Case, set in an HR department in a manufacturing company, extends through all 19 chapters and is available at www.mhhe.com/locker11e. The portion for this chapter asks students to improve the document design of a policy statement.

Exercises and Cases 6.1

Reviewing the Chapter

1. Why is document design important in business communication? (LO 6-1) 2. How can document design be part of your writing process? (LO 6-1) 3. What are the four levels of document design? (LO 6-2) 4. What are some guidelines for document design? (LO 6-3)

5. What are some basic guidelines for designing brochures? (LO 6-4) 6. What are some basic guidelines for designing infographics? (LO 6-5) 7. What are some basic guidelines for designing web pages? (LO 6-6) 8. How can you perform basic usability testing on your documents? (LO 6-7)

Chapter 6

6.2

Designing Documents

179

Evaluating Page Designs

Use the guidelines in this chapter to evaluate each of the following page designs. What are their strong points? What could be improved?

As your instructor directs, a. Discuss the design elements you see on these sample pages with a small group of classmates. b. Write an e-mail to your instructor evaluating the design elements on each of the sample pages. Be sure to address the four levels of design, as well as the guidelines for document design discussed in this chapter.

In an oral presentation to the class, explain the process you’d use to redesign one of the sample pages. What design elements would make the page stronger or weaker? What design elements would you change and how? Given the title of the document, what audience characteristics might your design take into account?

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6.3

The Communication Process

Evaluating the Ethics of Design Choices

Indicate whether you consider each of the following actions ethical, unethical, or a gray area. Which of the actions would you do? Which would you feel uncomfortable doing? Which would you refuse to do? 1. Putting the advantages of a proposal in a bulleted list, while discussing the disadvantages in a paragraph. 2. Using a bigger type size so that a résumé visually fills a whole page.

6.4

Using Headings

Reorganize the items in each of the following lists, using appropriate headings. Use bulleted or numbered lists as appropriate. a.

3. Using tiny print and very little white space on a credit card contract to make it less likely that people will read it. 4. Putting important information on the back of what looks like a one-page document. 5. Putting the services that are not covered by your health plan in full caps to make it less likely that people will read the page.

Rules and Procedures for a Tuition Reimbursement Plan 1. You are eligible to be reimbursed if you have been a full-time employee for at least three months. 2. You must apply before the first class meeting. 3. You must earn a “C” or better in the course. 4. You must submit a copy of the approved application, an official grade report, and a receipt for tuition paid to be reimbursed. 5. You can be reimbursed for courses related to your current position or another position in the company, or for courses which are part of a degree related to a current or possible job. 6. Your supervisor must sign the application form.

6.5

Evaluating Page Designs

1. Collect several documents that you receive as a consumer, a student, or an employee: forms, letters, newsletters, e-mails, announcements, ads, flyers, and reports. Use the document design guidelines in this chapter to evaluate each of them. 2. Compare these documents in a specific category to the documents produced by competing organizations. Which documents are more effective? Why? As your instructor directs, a. Discuss the documents with a small group of classmates.

6.6

Write an e-mail to your instructor evaluating three or more of the documents and comparing them to similar documents produced by competitors. Include originals or photocopies of the documents you discuss in an attachment to your e-mail. c. Write an e-mail to one of the originating organizations, recommending ways it can improve the document design. d. In an oral presentation to the class, explain what makes one document strong and another one weak.

Evaluating Infographics

After viewing a large sample of infographics online by investigating the websites mentioned in the sidebar on page 172, select your top three favorites and answer the following questions:

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Courses may be at any appropriate level (high school, college, or graduate school). Activities in Starting a New Business ■ Getting a loan or venture capital. ■ Getting any necessary city or state licenses. ■ Determining what you will make, do, or sell. ■ Identifying the market for your products or services. ■ Pricing your products or services. ■ Choosing a location. ■ Checking zoning laws that may affect the location. ■ Identifying government and university programs for small business development. ■ Figuring cash flow. ■ Ordering equipment and supplies. ■ Selling. ■ Advertising and marketing.

What are the purposes of the infographics? Who do you think are the intended audiences? What makes you say so?

■

How informational are the infographics? How persuasive are the infographics? If you think they are persuasive, what would make them even more persuasive? What original contexts would be most appropriate for the infographics?

Chapter 6 ■ ■ ■ ■

■

What visual design elements attract you to these particular infographics? What visual design elements, if any, detract from the main messages of the infographics? To what extent do the infographics contain misleading information or data distortion? To what extent are the visual design choices effective or ineffective? In what specific ways do the creators blend images and text? To what extent overall are your three chosen infographics effective or ineffective given the audiences and purpose you have identified?24

6.7

As your instructor directs, a. Discuss the pages with a small group of classmates.

Write an e-mail to your instructor evaluating the pages. Include URLs of the pages in your e-mail. c. In an oral presentation to the class, explain what makes one page good and another one weak. d. Post your evaluation in a discussion forum to the class. Include the URLs so classmates can click to the pages you discuss.

school’s website rank? How can a tool like this be useful for businesses? What limitations does this tool have? As your instructor directs, a. Share your findings with a small group of classmates. b. Write an e-mail to your instructor containing your findings.

Comparing Shopping Websites

Many shoppers around the world do much of their shopping online. In a pair or small groups, find three online shopping sites that sell similar types of merchandise. Consider the following questions: ■ Who are the target audiences of the websites? ■ What are some of the design features the websites offer customers? ■ How easily navigable are the home pages? ■ Are the websites organized with an F-shaped pattern? ■ How user-friendly are the websites? ■ How well do the websites’ search engines function?

6.10

As your instructor directs, a. Discuss the infographics and findings with a small group of classmates. b. Write an e-mail to your instructor evaluating the three infographics. Include URLs of the infographics mentioned in your e-mail. c. In an oral presentation to the class, explain what makes your three favorite infographics effective. d. Post your evaluation in a discussion forum to the class. Include the URLs of the infographics so classmates can view them.

Comparing Websites’ Rankings

Alexa.com is a website that tracks the performance and popularity of other websites. In addition to ranking websites, the site allows users to input several websites and compare their rank and number of page views on a colored graph. The comparisons can range between seven days and a year. Visit the site to see which websites currently have the honor of being the top-rated. Where does your organization’s or

6.9

181

Evaluating Websites

Compare three web pages in the same category (for example, shelters for the homeless, organizations, car companies, university departments, food banks). Which page(s) are most effective? Why? What weaknesses do the pages have?

6.8

Designing Documents

■ ■

How accessible are the websites for people with disabilities? Of the three websites, which is the best in terms of usability?

As your instructor directs, a. Discuss the websites with your partner or small group. b. Share your findings in an informal presentation for the rest of the class. c. Write an e-mail to your instructor containing your findings.

Creating a Brochure

Create a brochure for a campus, nonprofit, government, or business organization. As you work, ■ Analyze your intended audience. What are their needs? What factors are most likely to persuade them to read your brochure?

■ ■

Choose a story: What’s the important information? What idea do you want your audience to take away? Make page design choices that create a usable document and generate a positive response from your audience.

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Make visual design choices that enhance and expand on your text without being simply decorative.

As your instructor directs, a. Write an e-mail to your instructor explaining your choices for content and design.

6.11

As your instructor directs, a. Write an e-mail to your instructor explaining your choices for the content and design of your infographic. b. In an oral presentation to the class, display your infographic and explain your content and design choices.

Creating a Web Page

Create a web page for a campus, nonprofit, government, or business organization that does not yet have one. As you work, ■ Analyze your intended audience. What are their needs? What factors are most likely to persuade them to use this site? ■ Choose a story. What’s the important information? What action do you want them to take while they’re browsing this site? ■ Make page design choices that create a usable site and generate a positive response from your audience. ■ Make visual design choices that enhance and expand on your text without being distracting.

6.13

In an oral presentation to the class, display your brochure and explain your content and design choices.

Creating an Infographic

Create an infographic for a campus, nonprofit, government, or business organization. As you work, ■ Analyze your intended audience. What are their needs? What factors are most likely to persuade them to view your infographic? ■ Choose a story. What’s the important information? What idea or information do you want your audience to take away? ■ Make design choices that create a usable document and generate a positive response from your audience. ■ Make visual design choices that enhance and expand on your text without being simply decorative.

6.12

As your instructor directs, a. Write an e-mail to your instructor explaining your choices for content and design. b. In an oral presentation to the class, display your site and explain your page and visual design choices. Provide the URL, or display images of the site as presentation visuals, so that classmates can evaluate your design as you present it.

Testing a Document

Ask someone to follow a set of instructions or to fill out a form. (Consider consumer instructions, forms for financial aid, and so forth.) As an alternative, you also might test a document you’ve created for a course. ■ Time the person. How long does it take? Is the person able to complete the task? ■ Observe the person. Where does he or she pause, reread, seem confused? ■ Interview the person. What parts of the document were confusing?

As your instructor directs, a. Discuss the changes needed with a small group of classmates. b. Write an e-mail to your instructor evaluating the document and explaining the changes that are needed. Include the document as an attachment to your e-mail. c. Write to the organization that produced the document recommending necessary improvements. d. In an oral presentation to the class, evaluate the document and explain what changes are needed.

Chapter 6

6.14

Designing Documents

183

Improving a Financial Aid Form

You’ve just joined the financial aid office at your school. The director gives you the form shown below and asks you to redesign it. The director says: We need this form to see whether parents have other students in college besides the one requesting aid. Parents are supposed to list all family members that the parents support—themselves, the person here, any other kids in college, and any younger dependent kids. Half of these forms are filled out incorrectly. Most people just list the student going here; they leave out everyone else. If something is missing, the computer sends out a letter and a second copy of this form. The whole process starts over. Sometimes we send this form back two or three times before it’s right. In the meantime, students’ financial aid is delayed— maybe for months. Sometimes things are so late that they can’t register for classes, or they have to pay tuition themselves and get reimbursed later. If so many people are filling out the form wrong, the form itself must be the problem. See what you can do with it. But keep it to a page.

As your instructor directs, a. Analyze the current form and identify its problems. b. Revise the form. Add necessary information; reorder information; change the chart to make it easier to fill out. c. Write an e-mail to the director of financial aid pointing out the changes you made and why you made them. Hints: ■

■ ■ ■ ■

■

Where are people supposed to send the form? What is the phone number of the financial aid office? Should they need to call the office if the form is clear? Does the definition of half-time apply to all students or just those taking courses beyond high school? Should capital or lowercase letters be used? Are the lines big enough to write in? What headings or subdivisions within the form would remind people to list all family members whom they support? How can you encourage people to return the form promptly?

Please complete the chart below by listing all family members for whom you (the parents) will provide more than half support during the academic year (July 1 through June 30). Include yourselves (the parents), the student, and your dependent children, even if they are not attending college. EDUCATIONAL INFORMATION, 201_ – 201_

FULL NAME OF FAMILY MEMBER

AGE

RELATIONSHIP OF FAMILY MEMBER TO STUDENT

NAME OF SCHOOL OR COLLEGE THIS SCHOOL YEAR

FULL-TIME

HALF-TIME* OR MORE

LESS THAN HALF-TIME

STUDENT APPLICANT

*Half-time is defined as 6 credit hours or 12 clock hours a term. When the information requested is received by our office, processing of your financial aid application will resume. Please sign and mail this form to the above address as soon as possible. Your signature certifies that this information, and the information on the FAF, is true and complete to the best of your knowledge. If you have any questions, please contact a member of the need analysis staff. ______________________________ _________________ Signature of Parent(s) Date

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Notes 1. Edward Tufte, Beautiful Evidence (Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press, 2006), 153–55. 2. Des Moines Register, Front Page, October 14, 2011. 3. Charles Kostelnick and Michael Hassett, Shaping Information: The Rhetoric of Visual Conventions (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2003), 92, 94. 4. Ibid., 206–07. 5. Charles Kostelnick and David Roberts, Designing Visual Language, 2nd ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2011), 81–83. 6. Rebecca Hagen and Kim Golombisky, White Space is Not Your Enemy: A Beginners Guide to Communicating Visually Through Graphic, Web, and Multimedia Design, 2nd ed. (New York: Focal Press, 2013), 7. 7. George A. Miller, “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information,” Psychological Review 63, no. 2 (1956): 81–97. 8. Marlee M. Spafford, Catherine F. Schryer, Lorelei Lingard, and Marcellina Mian, “Accessibility and Order: Crossing Borders in Child Abuse Forensic Reports,” Technical Communication Quarterly 19, no. 2 (2010): 118–43. 9. Jerry E. Bishop, “Word Processing: Research on Stroke Victims Yields Clues to the Brain’s Capacity to Create Language,” Wall Street Journal, October 12, 1993, A6; Anne Meyer and David H. Rose, “Learning to Read in the Computer Age,” in Reading Research to Practice, ed. Jeanne S. Chall (Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books, 1998), 4–6. 10. Karen A. Schriver, Dynamics in Document Design (New York: Wiley, 1997), 274. 11. Jo Mackiewicz, “What Technical Writing Students Should Know about Typeface Personality,” Journal of Technical Writing and Communication 34, no. 1–2 (2004): 113–31. 12. Miles A. Kimball and Ann R. Hawkins, Document Design: A Guide for Technical Communicators (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2008), 49, 125. 13. Mark Smiciklas, The Power of Infographics (Indianapolis: Que, 2012), 60–64.

14. Donna Kienzler, “Visual Ethics,” Journal of Business Communication 34, no. 2 (1997): 171–72. 15. Harald Weinreich et al., “Not Quite the Average: An Empirical Study of Web Use,” ACM Transactions on the Web 2, no. 1 (2008): 18. 16. “Lessons, Part 2,” Fast Company, December 2012/January 2013, 98. 17. Jakob Nielsen, “F-Shaped Pattern for Reading Web Content,” Nielsen Norman Group: Jakob Nielsen’s Alertbox, April 17, 2006, http://www.nngroup.com/ articles/f-shaped-pattern-reading-web-content/. 18. Jakob Nielsen, “Website Response Time,” Nielsen Norman Group: Jakob Nielsen’s Alertbox, June 21, 2010, http://www .nngroup.com/articles/website-response-times/. 19. Jakob Nielsen, “Top Ten Mistakes in Web Design,” Nielsen Norman Group: Jakob Nielsen’s Alertbox, January 1, 2011, http://www.nngroup.com/articles/top-10-mistakesweb-design/; and Emily Steel, “Neglected Banner Ads Get a Second Life,” Wall Street Journal, June 20, 2007, B4. 20. “Corporate News: Target Settles with Blind Group on Web Access,” Wall Street Journal, August 28, 2008, B4; and Lauren Pollock, “iTunes Eases Access for Blind,” Wall Street Journal, September 29, 2008, B5. 21. Sarah Nassauer, “Marketing Decoder: Airline Boarding Passes,” Wall Street Journal, May 3, 2012, D2. 22. Jakob Nielsen, “Why You Only Need to Test with 5 Users,” Nielsen Norman Group: Jakob Nielsen’s Alertbox, March 19, 2000, http://www.nngroup.com/articles/ why-you-only-need-to-test-with-5-users/. 23. Jakob Nielsen, “Usability 101: Introduction to Usability,” Nielsen Norman Group: Jakob Nielsen’s Alertbox, January 4, 2012, http://www.nngroup.com/articles/ usability-101-introduction-to-usability/. 24. Christopher Toth, “Revisiting a Genre: Teaching Infographics in Business and Professional Communication Courses,” Business and Professional Communication Quarterly (March 2014). Page numbers not available at press time.

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Communicating across Cultures

Chapter Outline Global Business ■

Local Culture Adaptations Outsourcing ■ International Career Experience ■

Diversity in North America Ways to Look at Culture Values, Beliefs, and Practices Nonverbal Communication ■

Body Language Touch ■ Space ■

186

■ ■

Time Other Nonverbal Symbols

Oral Communication ■

Understatement and Exaggeration Compliments ■ Approaches to Negatives ■

Writing to International Audiences Learning More about International Business Communication Summary by Learning Objectives

NEWSWORTHY COMMUNICATION “Re-Treat” in China

o succeed in international markets, companies often need to adapt to local culture and tastes. American ice cream brands Baskin-Robbins and Dairy Queen have both had a presence in China since the early 1990s, but have had vastly different levels of success. Dairy Queen, which entered China two years earlier than BaskinRobbins, has opened more than 500 stores and plans to open another 500 by 2016.

Its success depends on how the company caters to local tastes: strong flavors and fruit-based desserts are popular in northern China, while green-tea-based flavors are favored in southern China. Dairy Queen relies on local owners to help the company balance between specialized local menus and costs of producing those products. Competitor Baskin-Robbins, on the other hand, had opened only 90 stores in nearly 20 years. Part of the problem was with the branding

and slogans of the company: in China, Baskin-Robbins was known as “31 American Flavors.” The company is now reviewing its strategy for China, including clarifying its brand, adapting its menu to local markets, and finding local master franchisees who can guide growth in different regions. International business success depends on finding ways to appeal to local markets while being sensitive to cultures, values, and beliefs.

Source: Diana Bates, “Baskin-Robbins vs. Dairy Queen: A Delicious Cold War in China,” CNNMoney, April 4, 2013, http://management.fortune.cnn .com/2013/04/04/baskin-robbins-dairy-queen-china/.

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Learning Objectives

Marketing to Hispanic Audiences Procter & Gamble (P&G) is changing marketing strategies to target more Hispanic shoppers. P&G is modifying some products and adding more Hispanic celebrities such as Jennifer Lopez and Eva Mendes to promote their products. Hispanic families are typically younger and larger than the average American family and are a perfect market for items such as diapers and laundry detergents. P&G’s researchers found that Hispanic shoppers are often willing to buy the slightly more expensive brands that P&G offers and that they are generally fans of fragrance in products. Some specific items focused to Hispanic shoppers are Febreze air fresheners such as Brazilian Carnival and Hawaiian Aloha, and Downy fabric softener scented with lavender. Adapted from Ellen Byron, “Hola: P&G Seeks Latino Shoppers,” Wall Street Journal, September 15, 2011, B1.

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After studying this chapter, you will know LO 7-1

Why global business is important.

LO 7-2

Why diversity is becoming more important.

LO 7-3

How our values and beliefs affect our responses to other people.

LO 7-4

How nonverbal communication impacts cross-cultural communications.

LO 7-5

How to adapt oral communication for cross-cultural communications.

LO 7-6

How to adapt written communications for global audiences.

LO 7-7

Why it is important to check cultural generalizations.

ur values, priorities, and practices are shaped by the culture in which we grow up. Understanding other cultures is crucial if you want to work in an organization with a diverse group of employees, benefit from a global supply chain, sell your products to other cultures in your country, sell to other countries, manage an international plant or office, or work in this country for a multinational company headquartered in another country. The successful intercultural communicator is ■

Aware of the values, beliefs, and practices in other cultures.

■

Sensitive to differences among individuals within a culture.

■

Aware that his or her preferred values and behaviors are influenced by culture and are not necessarily “right.”

■

Sensitive to verbal and nonverbal behavior.

■

Willing to ask questions about preferences and behaviors.

■

Flexible and open to change.

The first step in understanding another culture is to realize that it may do things very differently, and that the difference is not bad or inferior. The second step is understanding that people within a single culture differ.

WARNING: When pushed too far, the kinds of differences summarized in this chapter can turn into stereotypes, which can be just as damaging as ignorance. Psychologists have shown that stereotypes have serious consequences and that they come into play even when we don’t want them to. Asking African American students to identify their race before answering questions taken from the Graduate Record Examination, the standardized test used for admission to graduate schools, cut in half the number of items they got right.

Chapter 7

Communicating across Cultures

Similarly, asking students to identify their sex at the beginning of Advanced Placement (AP) calculus tests, used to give high school students college credits, lowered the scores of women. If the sex question were moved to the end of the test, about 5% more women would receive AP credit.1 Don’t try to memorize the material in this chapter as a rigid set of rules. Instead, use the examples to get a sense for the kinds of things that differ from one culture to another. Test these generalizations against your experience. When in doubt, ask.

Global Business

LO 7-1

As we saw in Chapter 4, exports and imports are essential both to the success of individual businesses and to a country’s economy as a whole. Even many small businesses have global supply chains. Most major businesses operate globally, and an increasing share of profits comes from outside the headquarters country: ■

McDonald’s earns 43% of its operating income internationally.

■

3M operates in more than 70 countries and has 65% of its sales internationally.

■

Unilever sells products in over 190 countries; more than 55 % of its business is in emerging markets.

■

Walmart’s international sales earn “only” 28% of the company’s sales, but that percentage is a huge $125 billion.2

Other businesses are following suit. Movie studios, for instance, are turning down scripts that would play well in the United States because they would not play well abroad. Such decisions are seen as sound, since foreign ticket sales are now two-thirds of the global film market. Studios are hiring more foreign actors for blockbusters, rewriting scripts for international audiences, and cutting back on comedies (American humor is frequently not funny abroad).3 Other companies depend on international vendors or operations for services such as call centers, data centers, and accounting centers.

Local Culture Adaptations As they expand globally, U.S. retailers are catering to local tastes and customs. When expanding to China, Walmart enraged consumers when its stores sold dead fish, and packaged meat, which shoppers saw as old merchandise. Walmart quickly learned to compensate by leaving meat uncovered and installing fish tanks to sell live fish. Walmart also sells live tortoises and snakes; Johnson’s Baby Oil is stocked next to moisturizers containing sheep placenta, a native wrinkle “cure.” Stores lure customers on foot or bikes with free shuttle buses and home deliveries for large items. Perhaps the biggest change is Walmart’s acceptance of organized labor in China; in July 2006 it accepted its first union ever into its stores. Other companies are also adapting their products to local preferences. Yum Brands, one of the most successful companies operating in China, serves fried shrimp and egg tarts along with Kentucky fried chicken, and Thai fried rice and seafood pizza at Pizza Huts. In the same market, Kraft Foods is offering green tea, mango, and mandarin orange cookies; beef stew; spicy chicken Ritz crackers; lobster cheese; and lemon-tea potato chips. In India, Dunkin’ Donuts is offering mango doughnuts and smoothies.4 Burger King sells a burger with

189

190

Marketing Disney to China Six months after Hong Kong Disneyland opened, Disney officials were scrambling to understand why attendance was so low at the new park. They turned for answers to Chinese travel agents who book tours. Some of these agents believed Disney officials had not tried to understand the local market and Chinese culture. After the disappointing start, Disney officials were eager to learn and ready to make changes. Using the travel industry feedback and other market research, Disney developed a new advertising campaign. Original ads had featured an aerial view of the park; new TV spots focused on people and showed guests riding attractions. A new print ad featuring a grandmother, mother, and daughter showed Disneyland as a place where families could have fun together. Disney also worked to make visitors more comfortable inside the park. At an attraction offered in three different languages, guests gravitated toward the shortest line—usually the line for English-speaking guests. Now, three separate signs clearly mark which language will be used to communicate with guests in that line. Greater use of Mandarin-speaking guides and materials helped guests better enjoy shows and attractions. Also, additional seating was added in dining areas because Chinese diners linger longer than do Americans. After incorporating these changes as well as others, Hong Kong Disneyland announced its first year in the black in February 2013. Source: Merissa Marr and Geoffrey A. Fowler, “Chinese Lessons for Disney,” Wall Street Journal, June 12, 2006, B1, B5; and Bruce Einhorn, “Disney’s Hong Kong Theme Park Finally Turns a Profit,” Bloomberg Businessweek, February 19, 2013, http://www.businessweek.com/ articles/2013-02-19/ disneys-hong-kong-themepark-finally-turns-a-profit.

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squid-ink-flavored catsup in Japan, where McDonald’s sells a pie filled with mashed potatoes and bacon.5 KFC (formerly Kentucky Fried Chicken) achieved a marketing coup in Japan by suggesting that traditional American Christmas dinners centered on fried chicken. The campaign was so successful that ChristWhat cultural barriers did Disney need to overcome to help Hong mas takeout meals Kong Disneyland succeed? See “Marketing Disney to China” from KFC now must sidebar. be reserved well in advance of the holiday. Signs in storefronts tell customers how many reservations are still available. Statues of Colonel Sanders are often dressed in kimonos or costumes for photo opportunities outside KFC stores.6 The costs for failing to adapt to local cultures can be high. AlertDriving, a Toronto company that provides training for companies’ drivers, opened its services in more than 20 countries before it became aware of problems. The driving lessons had been poorly translated, and the instructions did not fit with local laws and customs. To make matters worse, the company did not learn about some of the problems for years because some clients considered criticism disrespectful. Eventually AlertDriving had to spend a million dollars to retranslate and rework all of its materials for local cultures, a costly lesson in cultural awareness.7

Outsourcing Another major aspect of global business is outsourcing, sending corporate work to other companies. In the past this work was lower level: garment factories might be in Bangladesh; call or help centers might be in India. Now more companies are also outsourcing higher-level work such as research and accounting. And even outsourcing leaders, such as Tata Consultancy Services of India, are outsourcing; that company now has 8,500 employees in South America.8 Outsourcing has also moved from Near East countries to Eastern Europe and South America. IBM, Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, and Ernst & Young have all opened offices in Poland, where they appreciate the highly educated and multilingual young workforce.9

International Career Experience When plants, stores, and offices move overseas, people follow—from top executives to migrant workers. In fact, managers often find they need international experience if they want top-level jobs. Expatriate experience has also been shown to make them more creative and better problem solvers.10 This effect, combined with booming overseas growth, means that executive headhunters are looking for people with deep bicultural fluency or experience in several countries, with China, India, and Brazil at the top of the list.11 Responding to the need for global experience, business schools

Chapter 7

Communicating across Cultures

are stepping up their international offerings with classes, international case studies, overseas campuses, and student/faculty exchanges. For both young and experienced hires, second-language proficiency and multicultural awareness are sought.12 U.S. workers join a host of migrant workers already abroad. Nepalis work in Korean factories; Mongolians perform menial labor in Prague. Close to half of all migrants are women, many of whom leave children behind. They stay in touch through cell phones and the Internet.13 Migrant workers benefit the economies of both host and home countries. The money sent home by migrants, over $317 billion a year, is three times the world’s total foreign aid. For seven countries, that income is over a quarter of their gross domestic product.14 Thus, the money sent home is one of the major drivers of international development. Thomas Friedman, Pulitzer Prize author and New York Times columnist, uses the metaphor of a flat world to describe the increasing globalization. In The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century, he says, What the flattening of the world means is that we are now connecting all the knowledge centers on the planet together into a single global network, which— if politics and terrorism do not get in the way—could usher in an amazing era of prosperity, innovation, and collaboration, by companies, communities, and individuals.15

Diversity in North America

LO 7-2

Even if you stay in the United States and Canada, you’ll work with people whose backgrounds differ from yours. Residents of small towns and rural areas may have different notions of friendliness than do people from big cities. Californians may talk and dress differently than people in the Midwest. The cultural icons that resonate for baby boomers may mean little to millennials. For many workers, local diversity has become as important as international diversity. The past two decades have seen a growing emphasis on diversity. This diversity comes from many sources: ■

Gender

■

Religion

■

Race and ethnicity

■

Age

■

Regional and national origin

■

Sexual orientation

■

Social class

■

Physical ability

Many young Americans are already multicultural. According to 2010 U.S. census figures, only 59% of Americans aged 18 to 24 are non-Hispanic whites.16 Some of them are immigrants or descendants of immigrants. In 2010, the largest numbers of immigrants to the United States have come from Mexico, China, India, the Philippines, Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Vietnam.17 In 2002 Latinos became the largest minority group in the United States. The U.S. Census Bureau predicts that by 2042, the non-Hispanic white population will be less than 50% of the country’s total population.18 A comparable estimate from the Pew Research Center predicts the change will occur by 2050.19 Already California, the District of Columbia, Hawaii, New Mexico, and Texas have a population that is more than 50% minorities; the Census Bureau labels these states as having a “majority-minority” population.20

191

Beyond Stereotypes Learning about different cultures is important for understanding the different kinds of people we work with. However, leadership coaches Keith Caver and Ancella Livers caution that people are individuals, not just representatives of a cultural group. Based on their work with African American executives and middle managers, Caver and Livers have found that co-workers sometimes treat these individuals first as representatives of black culture, and only second as talented and experienced managers. As an example, Caver and Livers cite the all-too-common situation of a newly hired black manager who participates in a management development activity. The new manager is prepared to answer questions about her area of business expertise, but the only questions directed toward her are about diversity. African American clients of Caver and Livers have complained that they are often called upon to interpret the behavior of famous black Americans such as Clarence Thomas or Jesse Jackson, and they wonder whether their white colleagues would feel their race qualifies them to interpret the deeds of famous white Americans. In this example, stereotypes make well-intentioned efforts at communication offensive. To avoid such offense, consider not only culture, but also people’s individual qualities and their roles and experiences. A person who communicates one way in the role of son or daughter may communicate very differently as an engineer or client. Adapted from Keith A. Caver and Ancella B. Livers, “Dear White Boss,” Harvard Business Review 80, no. 11 (November 2002), 76–81.

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Bilingual Canada has long compared the diversity of its people to a mosaic. But now immigrants from Italy, China, and the Middle East add their voices to the medley of French, English, and Inuit. CHIN Radio in Toronto offers information in more than 30 languages.21 According to 2010 U.S. census figures, about 9 million people identified themselves as belonging to two or more races.22 U.S. census figures also show that 20.0% of the population nationally and 43.1% in California speak a language other than English at home.23 In cities such as Los Angeles and San Jose, over half the population speaks a language other than English at home (60.5% and 55.0%, respectively).24 Faced with these figures, organizations are making special efforts to diversify their workforces. Microsoft, for instance, has 40 employee networks; in addition to various national heritage groups such as Arabs, Brazilians, and exYugoslavians, they cover various family roles (working parents), disabilities (visually impaired persons), age groups (boomers), and backgrounds (U.S. military veterans). The groups help provide a sense of community and also provide resources for recruiting and training.25 Diversified companies are smart; new evidence shows that diversity can improve business. Research analyzing the relationship between diversity levels and business performance of 250 U.S. businesses found a correlation between diversity and business success; companies with high levels of racial and ethnic minorities have the highest profits, market shares, and number of customers. On the other hand, organizations with low levels of diversity have the lowest profits, market shares, and number of customers.26 When the Supreme Court heard arguments on considering race as a factor in admissions at the University of Texas, 57 companies, including Aetna, Dow Chemical, General Electric, Microsoft, Procter & Gamble, and Walmart, filed a brief arguing that a diverse workforce helpsprofits.27

Ways to Look at Culture Each of us grows up in a culture that provides patterns of acceptable behavior and belief. We may not be aware of the most basic features of our own culture until we come into contact with people who do things differently. In India, children might be expected to touch the bare feet of elders to show respect, but in the United States such touching would be inappropriate.28 Anthropologist Edward Hall first categorized cultures as high-context or low-context, categories that are popular in the business milieu, although no longer in vogue in anthropology. In high-context cultures, most of the information is inferred from the social relationships of the people and the context of a message; little is explicitly conveyed. Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, and Latin American cultures are high-context. In low-context cultures, context is less important; most information is explicitly spelled out. German, Scandinavian, and North American cultures are low-context. High- and low-context cultures value different kinds of communication and have different attitudes toward oral and written communication. As Figure 7.1 shows, low-context cultures like those of the United States favor direct approaches and may see indirectness as dishonest or manipulative. The written word is seen as more important than oral statements, so contracts are binding but promises may be broken. Details matter. Business communication practices in the United States reflect these low-context preferences.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1

Communicating across Cultures

193

Views of Communication in High- and Low-Context Cultures High-context (Examples: Japan, Saudi Arabia)

Low-context (Examples: Germany, North America)

Preferred communication strategy

Indirectness, politeness, ambiguity

Directness, confrontation, clarity

Reliance on words to communicate

Low

High

Reliance on nonverbal signs to communicate

High

Low

Importance of relationships

High

Low

Importance of written word

Low

High

Agreements made in writing

Not binding

Binding

Agreements made orally

Binding

Not binding

Attention to detail

Low

High

Another way of looking at cultures is by using Geert Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. Based on data collected by IBM, Hofstede’s five dimensions are power/inequality, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term/short-term orientation. They are now applied to 74 countries and regions. To illustrate, Hofstede analyzes the United States as extremely high in individualism, but also high in masculinity, with men dominating a significant portion of the power structure. It has a lower power-distance index, indicating more equality at all social levels. It also has a lower uncertainty avoidance index, meaning it has fewer rules and greater tolerance for a variety of ideas and beliefs than do many countries.29 The discussion that follows focuses on national and regional cultures. But business communication is also influenced by the organizational culture and by personal culture, such as gender, race and ethnicity, social class, and so forth. As Figure7.2 suggests, all of these intersect to determine what kind of communication is needed in a given situation. Sometimes one kind of culture may be more important than another. For example, in a study of aerospace engineers in Europe, Asia, and the United States, researchers found that the similarities of the professional discourse community outweighed differences in national cultures.30 Figure 7.2

National Culture, Organizational Culture, and Personal Culture Overlap

194

A $28 Billion Cross-Cultural Mistake When Daimler-Benz and Chrysler proposed a $36 billion merger in 1998, both parties thought it was a good plan. The merger was supposed to strengthen each other’s place in the automotive market. But in 2007, a third party, Cerberus Capital Management, bought Daimler-Chrysler for just $7.4 billion. What went wrong? The cultural differences reflected in the practices of the two companies were a significant factor. For example, the German workers of DaimlerBenz were used to daily, company-sanctioned beer breaks while the American workers worried that alcohol consumption during work would lead to accidents and legal suits. In addition, the German professionals were used to a formal, hierarchical structure in the organization and formal business attire. Differences in the corporate lifestyle later led to questions as to who got the better end of the deal. U.S. assembly line workers earned more wages per hour than their German counterparts. However, the German workers, who received a six-week annual vacation, fully paid health care and education, and a triennial soul-soothing spa break, undoubtedly had a better benefits package. In addition, while the Daimler plant produced 850,000 vehicles a year with 120,000 employees, Chrysler manufactured 3 million with approximately the same number of employees. These cultural differences eventually overshadowed the positives of this merger. Adapted from Associated Press, “A Chronology in the Takeover Saga of Global Automaker DaimlerChrysler AG,” Associated Press Archive, May 14, 2007; Roberto A. Weber and Colin F. Camerer, “Cultural Conflict and Merger Failure: An Experimental Approach,” Management Science 49, no. 4 (2003).

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Values, Beliefs, and Practices

LO 7-3

Values and beliefs, often unconscious, affect our response to people and situations. Most North Americans, for example, value “fairness.” “You’re not playing fair” is a sharp criticism calling for changed behavior. In some countries, however, people expect certain groups to receive preferential treatment. Many people in the United States value individualism. Other countries may value the group. Japan’s traditional culture emphasized the group, although there is evidence that this cultural value is changing. Social relationships, which vary widely by country, also affect business communications. In countries such as Brazil and Saudi Arabia, where obligations to family and friends are extremely important, phone calls or even visits from family and friends may interrupt business meetings. In Saudi Arabia, segregation of women is so complete that a man and a woman should not be seen together in public unless married or family. In 2008, even France’s president was asked not to bring his fiancée with him on a visit. Some buildings have elevators segregated by gender.31 Religion also affects business communication and business life. Practicing Muslims, Jews, and Christians observe days of rest and prayer on Friday, Saturday, and Sunday, respectively. During the holy month of Ramadan, Muslims fast from sunup to sundown; scheduling a business luncheon with a Muslim colleague during Ramadan would be inappropriate. Even everyday practices differ from culture to culture. North Americans and Europeans put the family name last; Asians put it first. North American and European printing moves from left to right; Arabic reads from right to left. In the United States, a meeting on the fourth floor is actually on the fourth floor; in England, it is actually on the fifth floor of the building, because the British distinguish between ground and first floors. In China, the building may not have a fourth floor, because the word for four sounds like the word for death, so the number is considered unlucky.32 Food practices can lead to interesting business meals, with different ways of eating. Food delicacies also vary widely by country. In China you might eat scorpions, kidney pie in England, snails in France, durian in Indonesia, grasshoppers in Mexico, sheep’s head in Saudi Arabia, and haggis in Scotland. Remember that our consumption of pork would horrify many Muslims, while our consumption of beef would disgust many Indians.33 Common business practices also differ among cultures (see Figure7.3). In Middle Eastern—or predominantly Muslim—countries, business cards are exchanged only with the right hand, never with the “unclean” left hand. Cards should not be kept or put in a pigskin case; in India, avoid leather cases, also. In China, business cards are exchanged with both hands; they are complimented and put in a card case. In Russia, where hierarchy is important, cards should show your status by including items such as your title and the founding date of your company. In India, where education is specially valued, your card might show your graduate degrees.34 In today’s electronically connected world, cultural practices can change swiftly. For instance, in China, where age has traditionally been revered, few political or business leaders now turn gray, even those who are in their fifties or sixties. Workers are also becoming less group oriented and more individualistic.35 In such fluid contexts, communication becomes even more important. If you don’t know, ask.

Nonverbal Communication

LO 7-4

Chapter 4 discussed the significance of nonverbal communication in interpersonal communication. Nonverbal communication is also important in intercultural settings. Be aware of usage differences in such areas as body language, touch, space, and time.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.3

Communicating across Cultures

195

Customs for Business Meetings Standing space bubble

Greeting

Faux pas

Less than one foot

Extended handshake; after acquaintance, embraces and air kisses

Refusing invitation to eat

Very important

2.5–3 feet

Slight bow; sometimes just a nod. With foreigners, handshake may follow bow.

Omitting official titles

Maybe small talk, maybe straight to business. If small talk, discuss local culture, sites, food, beverages.

Of major importance. Arrive a few minutes early.

About 6 inches beyond handshake distance

Firm, brief handshake with direct eye contact but not a big smile

Using humor in business affairs; referring to Third Reich

Trade event, the specific city, Indian culture

Trading of information about hobbies, travels, maybe some about your family

You should be punctual. Allow time for traffic jams.

2–2.5 feet. May move closer after initial greeting

Some businessmen will shake hands. A more common greeting among Indians is the namaste.*

Referring to caste system, Pakistan, or infrastructure

Japan

Many personal questions to ascertain your place in hierarchy

Try to establish pleasant mood rather than conveying lots of facts

Arrive 5–10 minutes early

Start 2.5–3 feet apart to leave room for the bow.

Enthusiastic verbal greeting. Many degrees of bowing (from the waist). Handshakes are gentle and last 5 seconds or more.

Not having a significant gift to exchange; prolonged eye contact

Russia

Russian cultural and scientific achievements

Explain your position with great clarity, evidence, and firmness.

Be punctual; your host may be 15 minutes late.

About 1.5 feet

Handshake with extended direct eye contact

Whistling, standing with hands in pockets

Saudi Arabia

Soccer or racing

Extensive inquiries into your journey, family; inquiring how host started in industry and became successful

Be punctual, but punctuality is not a virtue for natives.

About one foot; do not back away to increase space

Several styles of greeting currently in use; let your counterpart initiate

Misusing images of their flag; inquiries about women in general, host’s female family members in particular

Country Icebreakers

Openers

Punctuality

Brazil

Soccer

Some small talk

You should be punctual; your contact may be 15–60 minutes late.

China

Chinese discoveries and innovations

Research your contacts; they will have researched you. Show your awareness of a mutual interest.

Germany

Sports, international affairs, German literature

India

*Namaste: palms together in front of chest, fingertips just below chin. Head may nod slightly. Source: Terri Morrison and Wayne A. Conaway, Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands: Sales and Marketing: The Essential Cultural Guide—from Presentations and Promotions to Communicating and Closing (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012).

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Communicating with Subsistence Consumers Subsistence consumers may earn little money, but they still need to buy necessities. Corporations are learning how best to communicate with them. Many of them lack basic reading skills, so visual cues are important. Cues such as store layout, package design, and brand logos need to remain consistent for them. Many buy products that look attractive because of packaging colors or pictures. They also tend to buy only brands they recognize by appearance, so changes in colors or visual design have negative impacts. To better serve these customers, stores need to ■

Display pictures of product categories, so shoppers can find the goods they need.

■

Sell products in small quantities, including single-use or daily quantities.

■

Provide easy-to-use packaging that keeps products safe in local conditions such as high humidity and lack of refrigeration.

■

Price products in whole or half numbers, and display these prices graphically— such as a picture of the money needed to buy the product.

■

Train store personnel to form relationships with consumers and offer friendly, individualized assistance.

■

Capitalize on local social networks and word-ofmouth communications.

Adapted from Jose Antonio Rosa, Madhubalan Viswanathan, and Julie A. Ruth, “Emerging Lessons: For Multinational Companies, Understanding the Needs of Poorer Consumers Can Be Profitable and Socially Responsible,” Wall Street Journal, October 20, 2008, R12; and Kelly L. Weidner, Jose Antonio Rosa, and Madhu Viswanathan, “Marketing to Subsistence Consumers: Lessons from Practice,” Journal of Business Research, 63, no. 6 (2010): 559–69.

The Communication Process

Body Language Just as verbal languages differ, so body languages differ from culture to culture. The Japanese value the ability to sit quietly. They may see the U.S. tendency to fidget and shift as an indication of lack of mental or spiritual balance. Even in North America, interviewers and audiences usually respond negatively to nervous gestures such as fidgeting with a tie or hair or jewelry, tapping a pencil, or swinging a foot. People use body language to signal such traits as interest, respect, emotional involvement, confidence, and agreement. Among Arab men, for instance, holding hands is an expression of affection and solidarity. Americans working in the Middle East are cautioned to avoid pointing their finger at people or showing the soles of their feet when seated.36 Bill Gates made international news when he greeted the president of South Korea by shaking her hand with one hand and keeping his other hand in his pocket (a sign of disrespect in South Korea).

Eye Contact North American whites see eye contact as a sign of attention; in fact, lack of eye contact is slightly suspect. But in many cultures, dropped eyes are a sign of appropriate deference to a superior. Japanese show respect by lowering their eyes when speaking to superiors. In some Latin American and African cultures, such as Nigeria, it is disrespectful for lower-status people to prolong eye contact with their superiors. Similarly, in the United States, staring is considered rude. For the English, however, polite people pay strict attention to speakers and blink their eyes to show understanding. In China, a widening of the eyes shows anger, in the United States—surprise. Among Arab men, eye contact is important; it is considered impolite not to face someone directly.37 In Muslim countries, women and men are not supposed to have eye contact. These differences can lead to miscommunication in the multicultural workplace. Superiors may feel that subordinates are being disrespectful when the subordinates are being fully respectful—according to the norms of their culture. Facial Expression The frequency of smiling and the way people interpret smiles may depend on the purpose smiles serve in a particular culture. In the United States, smiling varies from region to region. In Germany, Sweden, and the “less-smiley” U.S. cultures, smiling is more likely to be reserved for close relationships and genuine joy. Frequent smiles in other situations would therefore seem insincere. For other people, including those in Thailand, smiling can be a way to create harmony and make situations pleasant. Research has shown that when they are interpreting emotions, Americans focus on the mouth, so smiles are important. Japanese often focus on the eyes. This distinction is apparent even in their emoticons. Americans use :) for a happy face and :( for a sad one; Japanese use ^-^ for a happy face and ;_; for a sad one.38 Gestures U.S. citizens sometimes assume that they can depend on gestures to communicate if language fails. But the meanings of gestures vary widely in different cultures. Kissing is usually an affection gesture in the United States but is a greeting gesture in other countries. In Greece, people may nod their heads to signify no and shake their heads to signify yes.39 Gestures that mean approval in the United States may have very different meanings in other countries. The “thumbs up” sign, which means “good work” or “go ahead” in the United States and most of Western Europe, is a vulgar insult in Iraq, Iran, and Bangladesh. The circle formed with the

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thumb and first finger that means OK in the United States is obscene in Brazil and Germany. In India, the raised middle finger means you need to urinate.40 The V-sign is another gesture with multiple meanings. Made with the palm facing out, it was famously used by Churchill during WWII and by the hippies in the ’60s and ’70s. Made with the palm facing in, it is the equivalent of giving someone the finger in countries such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Australia. An American president made interesting headlines when he inadvertently used the V-sign on a visit to Australia. Movements from other body parts besides the hands can also be significant. In Saudi Arabia, where feet are unclean, it would be highly improper to nudge anyone with your foot, or to sit with your legs crossed in a way that shows the sole of your shoe.41

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Nonverbal Communication Tips for China ■

If you are going to shake hands with your boss, you must initiate the handshake; use a gentle, almost limp, hand to show respect. Some Chinese do not like to shake hands; in that case, use a small bow.

■

Make sure you have a professional business card, and show you are impressed by others’ business cards. Treat their cards with admiration and respect.

■

Small gifts are expected. Give something like a watch (not too fancy, but a known Western brand), but never a clock (associated with death).

■

Numbers have meaning. Four is unlucky, because it sounds like death, so you would never give anyone a set of four objects. Eight is lucky because it sounds like wealth.

■

Do not point at someone to get their attention; that is considered a rude gesture. Instead, gracefully wave them over with your whole hand.

■

Be aware that drinking and smoking are considered a normal part of business.

■

Be prepared to eat foods that you are not familiar with, like offal (entrails and inner organs of animals). Fish heads, however, should be reserved for the most important person at the table.

Touch Repeated studies have shown that babies need to be touched to grow and thrive and that older people are healthier both mentally and physically if they are touched. But some people are more comfortable with touch than others. Each kind of person may misinterpret the other. A person who dislikes touch may seem unfriendly to someone who’s used to touching. A toucher may seem overly familiar to someone who dislikes touch. Many parts of North America allow opposite-sex couples to hold hands or walk arm-in-arm in public but frown on the same behavior in same-sex couples. People in some other countries have the opposite expectation: male friends or female friends can hold hands or walk arm-in-arm, but an oppositesex couple should not touch in public. In U.S. business settings, people generally shake hands when they meet, but little other touching is considered appropriate. In Mexico, greetings may involve greater physical contact. Men may embrace one another, and women may kiss one another. In many European settings, business colleagues may shake hands when they encounter one another throughout the day. In countries along the Mediterranean, hugs and shoulder pats are common as well. In some European countries, greetings include light kisses. The typical pattern is to kiss the person’s right cheek and then the left (or to kiss the air near the cheek). In Italy this pattern stops with two kisses; Belgians continue for three, and the French for four.42

Space Personal space is the distance people want between themselves and other people in ordinary, nonintimate interchanges. Some research shows that many North Americans, North Europeans, and Asians want a bigger personal space than do many Latin Americans, French, Italians, and Arabs. Even people who prefer lots of personal space are often forced to accept close contact on a crowded elevator or subway, or in a small conference room. Even within a culture, some people like more personal space than do others. In many cultures, people who are of the same age and sex take less personal space than do mixed-age or mixed-sex groups.

Time Differences in time zones complicate international phone calls and videoconferences. But even more important are different views of time and attitudes toward time. Offices in the United States keep time by the calendar and

Adapted from Eric Spitznagel, “Impress Your Chinese Boss,” Bloomberg Businessweek, January 9, 2012, 80–81.

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Chinese Brand Names Companies may struggle with brand name interpretations when introducing new products to another country. This can be especially difficult when bringing a new product to China, where the language has thousands of characters. Ideally, the Chinese name that is chosen will sound like the original and mean the same thing, but that ideal can be difficult to achieve. Companies naming products for the Chinese market have four approaches: ■

No resemblance in sound or meaning: Pizza Hut’s Chinese name means “Guarantee Wins Guests.”

■

Only sounds similar: Sony’s Chinese name sounds similar, but means “Exploring Nun or Priest.”

■

Means the same but sounds different: General Motors chose this option.

■

Sounds and means the same: Nike’s Chinese name sounds like “Nike” and means, “Endurance Conquer.”

The Communication Process

the clock. Being “on time” is seen as a sign of dependability. Other cultures may keep time by the seasons, the moon, the sun, internal “body clocks,” or a personal feeling that “the time is right.” North Americans who believe that “time is money” are often frustrated in negotiations with people who take a much more leisurely approach. Part of the problem is that people in many other cultures want to establish a personal relationship before they decide whether to do business with each other. The problem is made worse because various cultures mentally measure time differently. Many North Americans measure time in five-minute blocks. Someone who’s five minutes late to an appointment or a job interview feels compelled to apologize. If the executive or interviewer is running half an hour late, the caller expects to be told about the likely delay upon arriving. Some people won’t be able to wait that long and will need to reschedule their appointments. But in other cultures, half an hour may be the smallest block of time. To someone who mentally measures time in 30-minute blocks, being 45 minutes late is no worse than being 10 minutes late is to someone who is conscious of smaller units. Different cultures have different lead times for scheduling events. In some countries, you need to schedule important meetings at least two weeks in advance. In other countries, not only are people not booked up so far in advance, but a date two weeks into the future may be forgotten. Anthropologist Edward Hall distinguishes between monochronic cultures, which focus on clock time, and polychronic cultures, which focus on relationships. People in monochronic cultures tend to schedule their time and do one task at a time; people in polychronic cultures tend to want their time unstructured and do multiple tasks at the same time. When U.S. managers feel offended because a Latin American manager also sees other people during “their” appointments, the two kinds of time are in conflict.43

Other Nonverbal Symbols Adapted from Marc Fetscherin, Ilan Alon, Romie Littrell, and Allan Chan, “In China? Pick Your Brand Name Carefully,” Harvard Business Review 90, no. 9 (September 2012): 26.

Many other symbols can carry nonverbal meanings: clothing, colors, age, and height, to name a few.

Clothing In North America, certain styles and colors of clothing are considered more professional and credible. Some clothing denotes not only status but also occupational group. Cowboy boots, firefighter hats, and judicial robes all may, or may not, signal specific occupations. Tool belts, coveralls, hard hats, and stethoscopes may signal broader occupational groupings.

https://www.cia.gov/ library/publications/ the-world-factbook/. World Factbook published by the Central Intelligence Agency is a good starting point for learning about the people of another country. Extensive country-by-country information includes history, government, and economics.

Eating pizza with chopsticks illustrates how new cultural values interact with native culture to constantly create hybrid cultures.

Colors Colors can also carry meanings in a culture. Chinese tradition associates red with good fortune. Korean Buddhists use red to announce death. Black is the color of

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joy in Japan, the color of death in the United States.44 White is the color of funerals in Eastern countries; in the United States it is the color of brides. UPS found its company color working against it when it entered the Spanish market. The brown trucks that distinguish the delivery company’s brand in the United States are not a good image in Spain, where hearses are traditionally brown. When UPS realized its mistake, it altered its uniforms and truck colors in Spain, emphasizing the company logo rather than the color brown.45

Age In the United States, youth is valued. People color their hair and even have face-lifts to look as youthful as possible. In Japan, younger people generally defer to older people. Americans attempting to negotiate in Japan are usually taken more seriously if at least one member of the team is noticeably gray-haired. Height Height connotes status in many parts of the world. Executive offices are usually on the top floors; the underlings work below. Even being tall can help a person succeed. A recent study found that white, nonHispanic males of below-average height earned 10% less than males of above-average height. Each additional inch of height was linked to 2.5% greater income. Perhaps surprisingly, the measurement that produced this effect was the man’s height when he was a teenager. Those who grew later in life did not enjoy the income benefits of greater height. For white women in the study, actual adult height was associated with greater income. The researchers lacked sufficient data on other ethnic groups except to say that there seems to be a height–income effect for black males that resembles the effect for white males.46

Oral Communication

LO 7-5

Effective oral communication requires cultural understanding. In Japan, for instance, much information is transmitted nonverbally and indirectly. Subtlety and restraint are important; what is not said is just as important as what is said. Japanese are comfortable with silence, and pauses of 10 to 15 seconds are not uncommon.47 As Figure 7.3 suggests, even an act as specific as a business introduction may differ across cultures. These are general patterns, not absolutes, but they help communicators stay alert for audience preferences. During business meetings, even words as distinct as yes and no may cause confusion. In some cultures where saying no is considered rude, a yes may mean merely “I heard you.” Learning at least a little of the language of the country where you hope to do business will help you in several ways. First, learning the language will give you at least a glimpse into the culture. Second, learning some of the language will help you manage the daily necessities of finding food and getting where you need to go while you’re there. Finally, in business negotiations, knowing a little of the language gives you more time to think. You’ll catch part of the meaning when you hear your counterpart speak; you can begin thinking even before the translation begins. Frequently you will need good translators when you travel abroad on business. Brief them with the technical terms you’ll be using; explain as much of the context of your negotiations as possible. A good translator can also help you interpret nonverbal behavior and negotiating strategies. Some translators can help their clients establish trust and credibility with international businesses.

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http://www .cyborlink.com/ http://www .kwintessential.co.uk/ Cyborlink.com and Kwintessential.co.uk provide information on business communication in various countries. On both sites, choose a country to explore and you will get general information on topics such as negotiations, gift giving, personal space, and much more.

Safety Problem: Multiple Languages All mining is dangerous, but platinum mining is particular so. The mineral is frequently a mile below the surface and in very hard rock. Safety at Anglo American Platinum’s mines was further complicated by lack of a common language. Workers, who come from various countries and tribes, speak a dozen languages and are frequently not able to warn each other of dangers. For more than a hundred years, Anglo has taught its miners Fanagolo, a 200-word pidgin language created for mining tasks. But today’s workers find the language racially offensive. Now Anglo is offering English and Afrikaans classes, and encouraging all its miners to learn one of the two languages. Adapted from Robert Guy Matthews, “A Mile Down, Saving Miners’ Lives,” Wall Street Journal, July 19, 2010, B1.

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Understatement and Exaggeration To understand someone from another culture, you must understand the speaker’s conversational style. The British have a reputation for understatement. Someone good enough to play at Wimbledon may say he or she “plays a little tennis.” In many contexts, Americans accept exaggeration as a way to express positive thinking. Particularly in advertising, Americans expect some hype. Germans, in contrast, generally see exaggeration as a barrier to clear communication.48

Compliments The kinds of statements that people interpret as compliments and the socially correct ways to respond to compliments also vary among cultures. Statements that seem complimentary in one context may be inappropriate in another. For example, women in business may be uncomfortable if male colleagues or superiors compliment them on their appearance: the comments may suggest that the women are being treated as visual decoration rather than as contributing workers.

Approaches to Negatives Cultures also vary in the way they deal with unpleasant details. In Brazil and India, unpleasantness is suppressed, so a negative response would probably be indirect. It may be a statement that the issue or action is complicated, or an off-topic remark, such as one about a restaurant. To save face in Japan, bad news is never delivered in front of a group. In Saudi Arabia, face saving is also important, so again blunt no’s are rare. A polite yes may frequently be a no. A true yes will be followed by action such as a request for information or an appointment with a lawyer. Negative information is delivered through intermediaries.49

Writing to International Audiences

LO 7-6

Cultural preferences are also important in written documents. Germans, for instance, have a reputation for appreciating technical data and scientific detail. They are likely to be intolerant of claims that seem logically unsupportable. An American writing for a German audience should ensure that any claims are literally true.50 The Muslim calendar, the Hijri, is a lunar one of 354 days. Paperwork for Saudi businesses might carry two sets of dates: Western dates, designated C.E. (Common Era), and Muslim dates, designated H. (Hijri).51 Most cultures are more formal in their writing than the United States. When you write to international audiences, you may need to use titles, not first names. Avoid contractions, slang, idioms, and sports metaphors. Not:

Let’s knock these sales figures out of the ballpark.

But:

Our goal is to increase sales 7%.

Do write in English unless you’re extremely fluent in your reader’s language. Be clear, but be adult. Don’t write in second-grade English. Not:

We will meet Tuesday. Our meeting room will be Hanscher North. We will start at 9:30 AM.

But:

We will meet Tuesday at 9:30 AM in Hanscher North.

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The patterns of organization that work for U.S. audiences may need to be modified in international correspondence. For instance, most North Americans develop an argument linearly; points in a contract such as price, quantity, and delivery date are presented in order, one at a time. However, Disaster communications that cross cultures have many combusinesspeople from plexities, but Apple CEO Steve Jobs wrote a message that other cultures may moved audiences in multiple cultures. See “Communicating think holistically rather Compassion” sidebar on this page. than sequentially, and the business relationship may be far more important than the actual contract, which may not even be considered binding. In other documents, negative messages may need more buffering and requests may need to be indirect. A U.S. manager asking a direct question in an e-mail (“Were the contract numbers checked against Accounting’s figures?”) could cause hurt feelings among some international recipients, who might take the question as an accusation. As Figures7.4 and 7.5 suggest, the style, structure, and strategies that would motivate a U.S. audience may need to be changed for international readers. Relationships become more important, as do politeness strategies. The information in the figures suggests general patterns, not definitive delineations, but such suggestions help communicators look for ways to be more effective.

Figure 7.4

Cultural Contrasts in Oral Communication United States

Europe

Asia

Opening a conversation

Take the initiative

England: take the initiative

Japan: wait for an invitation to speak

Interrupting

Wait until speaker finishes

Italy: interruptions common; more than one person may speak at once

Japan: do not interrupt; silent periods common

Vocal characteristics

Modulated pace and volume

Spaniards may speak louder than the French

Indians speak English much faster than Americans

Disagreements

Stated calmly and directly

Spain: often accompanied by emotional outbursts

Japan: often communicated by silence

Key motivational factor

Russia: saved for extraordinary behavior, otherwise seen as false

Indonesia: may be offensive (suggests supervisor surprised by good job)

Praise

Source: Adapted from Richard M. Steers, Carlos J. Sanchez-Runde, and Luciara Nardon, Management across Cultures: Challenges and Strategies (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 222–23.

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Communicating Compassion When the 2011earthquake and tsunami struck Japan, Apple was preparing to release its latest version of the popular iPad there. It was a critical time for the company’s continued success. Hours after the earthquake, however, Apple suspended the iPad’s launch, and all its employees in Japan received this message from CEO Steve Jobs: “To Our Team in Japan, We have all been following the unfolding disaster in Japan. Our hearts go out to you and your families, as well as all of your countrymen who have been touched by this tragedy. If you need time or resources to visit or care for your families, please see HR and we will help you. If you are aware of any supplies that are needed, please also tell HR and we will do what we can to arrange delivery. Again, our hearts go out to you during this unimaginable crisis. Please stay safe.” The message itself was important—a statement of compassion from the CEO. But the way Apple continued to respond made the difference for thousands of employees and even more nonemployees. In cities with no power or Internet, Apple’s self-contained stores stayed open, providing free wireless access, computer access, phone calls, charging stations, food, and places to sleep for stranded employees. Hundreds crowded into the stores to contact family and friends. In high-context cultures like Japan’s, which place great importance on actions and personal relationships, Apple’s response to the disaster was admirable. The message from Jobs and the actions of local employees who helped thousands of people were compassionate gestures from a truly international company. Adapted from “Steve Jobs Responds to Japan Quake,” International Business Times, March 17, 2011, http://www .ibtimes.com/steve-jobs-respondsjapan-quake-276013#; and Josh Ong, “Japan Apple Stores Serve as Rallying Point after Massive Quake,” Apple Insider, March 14, 2011, http://appleinsider.com/ articles/11/03/14/japan_apple_ stores_serve_as_rallying_point_ after_massive_quake.

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Figure 7.5

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Cultural Contrasts in Written Persuasive Documents United States

Japan

Arab countries

Opening

Request action or get reader’s attention

Offer thanks; apologize

Offer personal greetings

Way to persuade

Immediate gain or loss of opportunity

Waiting

Personal connections; future opportunity

Style

Short sentences

Modesty; minimize own standing

Elaborate expressions; many signatures

Closing

Specific request

Desire to maintain harmony

Future relationship, personal greeting

Values

Efficiency, directness, action

Politeness, indirectness, relationship

Status, continuation

Source: Adapted from Farid Elashmawi and Philip R. Harris, Multicultural Management 2000: Essential Cultural Insights for Global Business Success (Houston: Gulf, 1998), 139.

IBM in Africa IBM would like to use its products and consulting experience to help Africa increase crop yields, power grid performance, and government efficiency. Many parts of Africa desperately need this help. In various cities and town, thousands of people live in shacks made out of plastic tarps and old iron, living on very small amounts of water. In the city of Tshwane in South Africa, a quarter of the city’s water supply is wasted due to leaking water tanks. IBM sent a team to do a free analysis of Tshwane’s water system in order to build a business relationship with the local government. IBM’s revenue from Africa was $400 million in 2012 and is expected to more than double in a few years. If so, this growth will be even faster than sales growth in India was. Working in Africa can be a risky venture for businesses, however. Because so many African governments are new and subject to failure, establishing a business relationship with them can be difficult. Adapted from Sarah Frier, “Things Fall Apart. IBM Is Here to Help,” Bloomberg Businessweek, February 25–March 3, 2013, 28–29.

Most writers will benefit from researching a culture before composing messages for people in it. Response time expectations may also need to be modified. U.S. employees tend to expect fast answers to e-mails. However, other cultures with hierarchical organization structures may need extra response time to allow for approval by superiors. Pressing for a quick response may alienate the people whose help is needed and may result in false promises.52 In international business correspondence, list the day before the month: Not:

April 8, 2008

But:

8 April 2008

Spell out the month to avoid confusion. Businesspeople from Europe and Japan who correspond frequently with North America are beginning to adopt U.S. directness and patterns of organization. Still, it may be safer to modify your message somewhat; it certainly is more courteous.

Learning More about International Business Communication LO 7-7 Learning to communicate with people from different backgrounds shouldn’t be a matter of learning rules. Instead, use the examples in this chapter to get a sense for the kinds of factors that differ from one culture to another. Test these generalizations against your experience. Remember that people everywhere have their own personal characteristics. And when in doubt, ask. You can also learn by seeking out people from other backgrounds and talking with them. Many campuses have centers for international students. Some communities have groups of international businesspeople who meet regularly to discuss their countries. By asking all these people what aspects of the dominant U.S. culture seem strange to them, you’ll learn much about what is “right” in their cultures.

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Summary by Learning Objectives LO 7-1

Why global business is important.

LO 7-5

How to adapt oral communication for cross-cultural communications.

Exports are essential both to the success of individual businesses and to a country’s economy as a whole. Even many small businesses have global supply chains.

Learning a little of the language of the country helps, as does a good translator. Be particularly careful of compliments and approaches to negatives.

LO 7-2

LO 7-6

Why diversity is becoming more important.

Research has found a correlation between diversity and business success; companies with high levels of racial and ethnic minorities have the highest profits, the highest market shares, and highest number of customers. LO 7-3

How our values and beliefs affect our responses to other people.

Although often unconscious, our values and beliefs impact our cross-cultural communications. Religious beliefs, social values, even everyday practices, all impact communication. LO 7-4

How nonverbal communication impacts cross-cultural communications.

Nonverbal communication is communication that doesn’t use words. Nonverbal communication can include body language, space, time, and other miscellaneous matters such as clothing, colors, age, and height. Nonverbal signals can be misinterpreted just as easily as can verbal symbols (words). For instance, no gesture has a universal meaning across all cultures. Gestures that signify approval in North America may be insults in other countries, and vice versa.

How to adapt written communications for global audiences.

Cultural preferences are also important in written documents. Most cultures are more formal in their writing than the United States. Also, the patterns of organization that work for North American audiences may need to be modified in international correspondence. LO 7-7

Why it is important to check cultural generalizations.

The successful intercultural communicator is ■ Aware of the values, beliefs, and practices in other cultures. ■ Sensitive to differences among individuals within a culture. ■ Aware that his or her preferred values and behaviors are influenced by culture and are not necessarily “right.” ■ Sensitive to verbal and nonverbal behavior. ■ Willing to ask about preferences and behaviors. ■ Flexible and open to change.

Continuing Case The All-Weather Case, set in an HR department in a manufacturing company, extends through all 19 chapters and is available at www.mhhe.com/locker11e. The portion for this chapter asks students to research and then write on Japanese customs.

Exercises and Cases 7.1

*Go to www.mhhe.com/locker11e for additional Exercises and Cases.

Reviewing the Chapter

1. Why is global business important? (LO 7-1) 2. What are the advantages of receiving an overseas assignment? (LO 7-1) 3. Why is diversity becoming more important than ever before? (LO 7-2)

4. What are low-context and high-context cultures? (LO 7-3) 5. How do our values and beliefs affect our responses to other people? (LO 7-3)

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6. What are some forms of nonverbal communication? What variations would you expect to see in them among people of different cultures? (LO 7-4) 7. Why do people from monochronic cultures sometimes have trouble with people from polychronic cultures? (LO 7-4) 8. What are some characteristics of oral communications you should consider when communicating cross-culturally? (LO 7-5)

7.2

Identifying Sources of Miscommunication

In each of the following situations, identify one or more ways that cultural differences may be leading to miscommunication. 1. Alan is a U.S. sales representative in South America. He makes appointments and is careful to be on time. But the person he’s calling on is frequently late. To save time, Alan tries to get right to business. But his hosts want to talk about sightseeing and his family. Even worse, his appointments are interrupted constantly, not only by business phone calls but also by long conversations with other people and even the customers’ children who come into the office. Alan’s first progress report is very negative. He hasn’t yet made a sale. Perhaps South America just isn’t the right place to sell his company’s products. 2. To help her company establish a presence in Asia, Susan wants to hire a local interpreter who can advise her on business customs. Kana Tomari has superb qualifications on paper. But when Susan tries to probe about her experience, Kana just says, “I will do my best. I will try very hard.” She never gives details about any of the previous positions she’s held. Susan begins to wonder if the résumé is inflated.

7.3

3. Stan wants to negotiate a joint venture with an Asian company. He asks Tung-Sen Lee if the people have enough discretionary income to afford his product. Mr. Lee is silent for a time, and then says, “Your product is good. People in the West must like it.” Stan smiles, pleased that Mr. Lee recognizes the quality of his product, and he gives Mr. Lee a contract to sign. Weeks later, Stan still hasn’t heard anything. If Asians are going to be so nonresponsive, he wonders if he really should try to do business with them. 4. Elspeth is very proud of her participatory management style. On assignment in India, she is careful not to give orders but to ask for suggestions. But people rarely suggest anything. Even a formal suggestion system doesn’t work. And to make matters worse, she doesn’t sense the respect and camaraderie of the plant she managed in the United States. Perhaps, she decides gloomily, people in India just aren’t ready for a woman boss.

Interviewing for Cultural Information

Interview a person from an international community about cross-cultural communication. You might want to discuss issues such as these: ■ Verbal and nonverbal communication, including body language. ■ Tone and organization of professional communications.

7.4

9. What are some cautions to consider when writing for international audiences? (LO 7-6) 10. Why is it important to check cultural generalizations? (LO 7-7)

■

Attitude toward materialism. Time awareness differences. ■ Concepts of personal space. Compare the person’s responses with your own values and write an e-mail to your instructor reflecting on the similarities and differences. ■

Analyzing Ads

Go to http://advertising.chinasmack.com/2011/weird -wonderful-chinese-advertising-of-2011.html, which is a website that portrays advertisements from China. In small groups, choose one advertisement to analyze. Compare it to a similar ad created in the Unites States. ■ What are some differences you see in the advertisement? ■ What does the advertisement say about cultural values in the country it is from?

■

What message is the advertisement sending about a particular product or company? ■ Does the advertisement require an explanation for our understanding? ■ Would this particular advertisement be effective if shown in the United States? Discuss your findings in small groups. As a group, prepare a short presentation for your classmates.

Chapter 7

7.5

Communicating across Cultures

Comparing Company Web Pages for Various Countries

Many multinationals have separate web pages for their operations in various countries. For example, CocaCola’s pages include pages for Belgium, France, and Japan. Analyze three of the country pages of a company of your choice. ■ Is a single template used for pages in different countries, or do the basic designs differ? ■ Are different images used in different countries? What do the images suggest? ■ If you can read the language, analyze the links. What information is emphasized? ■ To what extent are the pages similar? To what extent do they reveal national and cultural differences?

7.6

As your instructor directs, a. Write an e-mail analyzing the similarities and differences you find. Attach printouts of the pages to your e-mail. b. Make an oral presentation to the class. Paste the web pages into PowerPoint slides. c. Join with a small group of students to create a group report comparing several companies’ web pages in three specific countries. Attach printouts of the pages. d. Make a group oral presentation to the class.

Researching Other Countries

Choose two countries in two different continents other than North America. Look them up in both http://www .cyborlink.com and http://www.kwintessential.co.uk. Note information a new manager in those countries would need to know. Working in small groups (make sure your group covers multiple continents and does not duplicate countries), share your information.

7.7

a. Which country would be the easiest one for a young U.S. manager to gain international experience? Why? b. Which country would be the hardest? Why? c. Which country would you like to be sent to by a company? Why?

Creating a Web Page

Create a web page of international information for managers who are planning assignments in another country or who work in this country for a multinational company headquartered in another country. Assume that this page can be accessed from another of the organization’s pages. Offer at least seven links. (More is better.) You may offer information as well as links to other pages with information. At the top of the page, offer an overview of what the page covers. At the bottom of the page, put the creation/update date and your name and e-mail address.

material on this topic, (3) why you chose the pages and information you’ve included, and (4) why you chose the layout and graphics you’ve used. c. Present your page orally to the class. Hints: ■ ■

As your instructor directs, a. Turn in a copy of your page(s). On another page, give the URLs for each link. b. Write an e-mail to your instructor (1) identifying the audience for which the page is designed and explaining (2) the search strategies you used to find

7.8

205

■

Limit your page to just one country or one part of the world. You can include some general information about working abroad and culture, but most of your links should be specific to the country or part of the world you focus on. Consider some of these topics: history, politics, geography, culture, money, living accommodations, transportation, weather, business practices, and so forth. Chunk your links into small groups under headings.

Comparing International Information

In small groups, find at least four websites providing information about a specific international community. Also, if possible, meet with a member of that community and discuss your findings. Do you find any clashing sources of evidence? What do the contradictions tell you

about your sources? What do they tell you about that international community in general? Discuss your findings in small groups. As a group, prepare a short presentation for your classmates.

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Planning an International Trip

Assume that you’re going to the capital city of another country on business two months from now. (You pick the country.) Use a search engine to find out ■ What holidays will be celebrated in that month. ■ What the climate will be. ■ What current events are in the news there. ■ What key features of business etiquette you might consider. ■ What kinds of gifts you should bring to your hosts. ■ What sight-seeing you might include.

7.10

As your instructor directs, a. Write an e-mail to your instructor reporting the information you found. b. Post a message to the class analyzing the pages. Include the URLs as hot links. c. Make an oral presentation to the class. d. Join with a small group of students to create a group report on several countries in a region. e. Make a group oral presentation to the class.

Recommending a Candidate for an Overseas Position

Your company sells customized computer systems to businesses large and small around the world. The Executive Committee needs to recommend someone to begin a three-year term as manager of Eastern European marketing. As your instructor directs, a. Write an e-mail to each of the candidates, specifying the questions you would like each to answer in a final interview. b. Assume that it is not possible to interview the candidates. Use the information here to write an e-mail to the CEO recommending a candidate. c. Write an e-mail to the CEO recommending the best way to prepare the person chosen for his or her assignment. d. Write an e-mail to the CEO recommending a better way to choose candidates for international assignments. e. Write an e-mail to your instructor explaining the assumptions you made about the company and the candidates that influenced your recommendation(s). Information about the candidates: All the candidates have applied for the position and say they are highly interested in it. 1. Deborah Gere, 39, white, single. Employed by the company for eight years in the Indianapolis and New York offices. Currently in the New York office as assistant marketing manager, Eastern United States; successful. University of Indiana MBA. Speaks Russian fluently; has translated for business negotiations that led to the setting up of the Moscow office. Good technical knowledge, acceptable managerial skills, excellent communication skills, good interpersonal skills. Excellent health; excellent emotional stability. Swims. One child, age 12. Lived in the then–Soviet Union for one year as an exchange student in college; business and personal travel in Europe. 2. Claude Chabot, 36, French, single. Employed by the company for 11 years in the Paris and

Londonoffices. Currently in the Paris office as assistant sales manager for the European Community; successful. No MBA, but degrees from MIT in the United States and l’Ecole Supérieure de Commerce de Paris. Speaks native French; speaks English and Italian fluently; speaks some German. Good technical knowledge, excellent managerial skills, acceptable communication skills, excellent interpersonal skills. Excellent health, good emotional stability. Plays tennis. No children. French citizen; lived in the United States for two years, in London for five years (one year in college, four years in the London office). Extensive business and personal travel in Europe. 3. Linda Moss, 35, African American, married. Employed by the company for 10 years in the Atlanta and Toronto offices. Currently assistant manager of Canadian marketing; very successful. Howard University MBA. Speaks some French. Good technical knowledge, excellent managerial skills, excellent communication skills, excellent interpersonal skills. Excellent health; excellent emotional stability. Does Jazzercize classes. Husband is an executive at a U.S. company in Detroit; he plans to stay in the States with their children, ages 11 and9. The couple plans to commute every two to six weeks. Has lived in Toronto for five years; business travel in North America; personal travel in Europe and Latin America. 4. Steven Hsu, 42, of Asian American descent, married. Employed by the company for 18 years in the Los Angeles office. Currently marketing manager, Western United States; very successful. UCLA MBA. Speaks some Korean. Excellent technical knowledge, excellent managerial skills, good communication skills, excellent interpersonal skills. Good health, excellent emotional stability. Plays golf. Wife is an engineer who plans to do consulting work in Eastern Europe. Children ages 8, 5, and 2. Has not lived outside the United States; personal travel in Europe and Asia.

Chapter 7

Communicating across Cultures

Your committee has received this e-mail from the CEO. To:

Executive Committee

From:

Ed Conzachi

Subject:

Choosing a Manager for the New Eastern European Office

Please write me an e-mail recommending the best candidate for manager of East European marketing. In your e-mail, tell me whom you’re choosing and why; also explain why you have rejected the unsuccessful candidates. This person will be assuming a three-year appointment, with the possibility of reappointment. The company will pay moving and relocation expenses for the manager and his or her family. The Eastern European division currently is the smallest of the company’s international divisions. However, this area is poised for growth. The new manager will supervise the Moscow office and establish branch offices as needed.

The committee has invited comments from everyone in the company. You’ve received these e-mails.

To:

Executive Committee

From:

Robert Osborne, U.S. Marketing Manager

Subject:

Recommendation for Steve Hsu

Steve Hsu would be a great choice to head up the new Moscow office. In the past seven years, Steve has increased sales in the Western Region by 15%—in spite of recessions, earthquakes, and fires. He has a low-key, participative style that brings out the best in subordinates. Moreover, Steve is a brilliant computer programmer. He probably understands our products better than any other marketing or salesperson in the company. Steve is clearly destined for success in headquarters. This assignment will give him the international experience he needs to move up to the next level of executive success.

To:

Executive Committee

From:

Becky Exter, Affirmative Action Officer

Subject:

Hiring the New Manager for East European Marketing

Please be sensitive to affirmative action concerns. The company has a very good record of appointing women and minorities to key positions in the United States and Canada; so far our record in our overseas divisions has been less effective. In part, perhaps, that may stem from a perception that women and minorities will not be accepted in countries less open than our own. But the experience of several multinational firms has been that even exclusionary countries will accept people who have the full backing of their companies. Another concern may be that it will be harder for women to establish a social support system abroad. However, different individuals have different ways of establishing support. To assume that the best candidate for an international assignment is a male with a stay-at-home wife is discriminatory and may deprive our company of the skills of some of its best people. We have several qualified women and minority candidates. I urge you to consider their credentials carefully.

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To:

Executive Committee

From:

William E. Dortch, Marketing Manager, European Economic Community

Subject:

Recommendation for Debbie Gere

Debbie Gere would be my choice to head the new Moscow office. As you know, I recommended that Europe be divided and that we establish an Eastern European division. Of all the people from the States who have worked on the creation of the new division, Debbie is the best. The negotiations were often complex. Debbie’s knowledge of the language and culture was invaluable. She’s done a good job in the New York office and is ready for wider responsibilities. Eastern Europe is a challenging place, but Debbie can handle the pressure and help us gain the foothold we need.

To:

Ed Conzachi, President

From:

Pierre Garamond, Sales Representative, European Economic Community

Subject:

Recommendation for Claude Chabot

Claude Chabot would be the best choice for manager of Eastern European marketing. He is a superb supervisor, motivating us to the highest level of achievement. He understands the complex legal and cultural nuances of selling our products in Europe as only a native can. He also has the budgeting and managerial skills to oversee the entire marketing effort. You are aware that the company’s record of sending U.S. citizens to head international divisions is not particularly good. European Marketing is an exception, but our records in the Middle East and Japan have been poor. The company would gain stability by appointing Europeans to head European offices, Asians to head Asian offices, and so forth. Such people would do a better job of managing and motivating staffs which will be comprised primarily of nationals in the country where the office is located. Ending the practice of reserving the top jobs for U.S. citizens would also send a message to international employees that we are valued and that we have a future with this company.

To:

Executive Committee

From:

Elaine Crispell, Manager, Canadian Marketing

Subject:

Recommendation for Linda Moss

Linda Moss has done well as Assistant Manager for the last two and a half years. She is a creative, flexible problem solver. Her productivity is the highest in the office. Though she could be called a “workaholic,” she is a warm, caring human being. As you know, the Canadian division includes French-Speaking Montreal and a large Native Canadian population; furthermore, Toronto is an international and intercultural city. Linda has gained intercultural competence both on a personal and professional level. Linda has the potential to be our first woman CEO 15 years down the road. She needs more international experience to be competitive at that level. This would be a good opportunity for her, and she would do well for the company.

Chapter 7

7.11

209

Researching Diversity at Your School

Research your university’s policies and practices regarding diversity. Conduct the following research: ■ Locate your university’s position statement on diversity for both employment and educational opportunities. ■ Find diversity data for your university’s student body. ■ Gather pictures of the student body you can find from the Internet, brochures, and posters throughout your university. ■ Analyze your findings. Do the pictures you find resemble the statistics you find?

7.12

Communicating across Cultures

As your instructor directs, a. Write an e-mail to your instructor explaining your findings, opinions, and conclusions. b. Share your results with a small group of students. c. Write an e-mail message to the president of the university outlining your opinion on how your university is achieving diversity and what, if anything, needs to be done to improve its efforts. d. Make a short oral presentation to the class discussing your findings and conclusions.

Analyzing Cross-Cultural Advertising Ethics

In China, Reckitt Benckiser Group recently adapted a marketing plan for its Veet hair-removal cream, encouraging Chinese women to be more conscious of body hair. Chinese women physically do not have much body hair and traditionally have not been concerned about it, so they are a new target audience. The company gave away free samples at universities, with careful use instructions. Reckitt Benckiser Group then promoted the product as an absolute necessity to avoid embarrassment and to be professional. Veet even hired a Chinese actress, Yang Mi, to endorse Veet. Discuss these questions as a group: ■ Is it ethical to convince a specific audience that a natural feature of their body is a negative?

■ ■

How might this new product affect Chinese culture? If you were working on the marketing team for Veet, what would you do if someone on the team introduced the new marketing strategy?

As your instructor directs, a. Write an e-mail to your instructor explaining your findings, opinions, and conclusions. b. Share your results with a small group of students. c. Make a short oral presentation to the class discussing your findings and conclusions.

Notes 1. Sharon Begley, “Studies Take Measure of How Stereotyping Alters Performance,” Wall Street Journal, February 23, 2007, B1; and Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson, “Stereotype Threat and Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69, no. 5 (1995): 797–811. 2. McDonald’s, McDonald’s 2012 Annual Report, March 13, 2013, http://www.aboutmcdonalds.com/content/dam/ AboutMcDonalds/Investors/Investor%202013/2012%20 Annual%20Report%20Final.pdf; 3M, “3M Facts Year-end 2012,” accessed May 15, 2013, http://multimedia.3m .com/mws/mediawebserver?mwsId5SSSSSuH8gc7nZ xtUNY_BPY_BevUqe17zHvTSevTSeSSSSSS--; Unilever, “Unilever Annual Report 2012,” accessed May 15, 2013, http://unilever.com/images/ir_Unilever_AR12_tcm13348376.pdf; Walmart, Walmart 2012 Annual Report, http:// www.walmartstores.com/sites/annual-report/2012/ WalMart_AR.pdf. 3. Lauren A. E. Schuker, “Plot Change: Foreign Forces TransformHollywood Films,” Wall Street Journal, July 31, 2010, A1.

4. Laurie Burkitt, “China Loses Its Taste for Yum,” Wall Street Journal, December 3, 2012, B9; Laurie Burkitt, “Kraft Craves More of China’s Snacks Market,” Wall Street Journal, May 30, 2012, B6; and Margherita Stancati, “Dunkin’ Donuts Goes to India,” Wall Street Journal, May 9, 2012, B3. 5. Dan Myers, “The 5 Craziest McDonald’s Pies,” USAToday.com, January 29, 2013, http://www.usatoday .com/story/travel/destinations/2013/01/29/the-5craziest-mcdonalds-pies/1873913/. 6. Terri Morrison and Wayne A. Conaway, Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands: Sales and Marketing: The Essential Cultural Guide— from Presentations and Promotions to Communicating and Closing (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 140. 7. Emily Maltby, “Expanding Abroad? Avoid Cultural Gaffes,” Wall Street Journal, January 19, 2010, B5. 8. John Helyar, “Outsourcing: A Passage Out of India,” Bloomberg Businessweek, March 19, 2012, 36. 9. Ibid.

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10. William W. Maddux, Adam D. Galinshky, and Carmit T. Tadmor, “Be a Better Manager: Live Abroad,” Harvard Business Review 88, no. 9 (2010): 24. 11. Joann S. Lublin, “Hunt Is On for Fresh Executive Talent: Recruiters List Hot Prospects, Cultural Flexibility in Demand,” Wall Street Journal, April 11, 2011, B1. 12. Diana Middleton, “Schools Set Global Track, for Students and Programs,” Wall Street Journal, April 7, 2011, B7. 13. Eunkyung Seo, “South Korea’s Hottest Import: Workers,” Bloomberg Businessweek, February 25, 2013, 12; and Jason DeParle, “Global Migration: A World Ever More on the Move,” New York Times, June 26, 2010, http://www .nytimes.com/2010/06/27/weekinreview/27deparle .html?pagewanted5all&_r50. 14. DeParle, “Global Migration.” 15. Thomas L. Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century, updated and expanded ed. (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006), 8. 16. U.S. Census Bureau, “Statistical Abstract of the United States, Table 12: Resident Population Projections by Race, Hispanic Origin, and Age: 2010 and 2015,” accessed May 16, 2013, http://www.census.gov/compendia/ statab/2012/tables/12s0012.pdf. 17. U.S. Census Bureau, “Statistical Abstract of the United States, Table 50: Persons Obtaining Legal Permanent Resident Status by Country of Birth: 1981 to 2010,” accessed May 16, 2013, http://www.census.gov/compendia/ statab/2012/tables/12s0050.pdf. 18. Conor Dougherty, “Whites to Lose Majority Status in U.S. by 2042,” Wall Street Journal, August 14, 2008, A3. 19. Jeffery Passel, Gretchen Livingston, and D’Vera Cohn, “Explaining Why Minority Births Now Outnumber White Births,” Pew Research Social & Demographic Trends, May 17, 2012, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/05/17/ explaining-why-minority-births-now-outnumber-whitebirths/. 20. U.S. Census Bureau, “2010 Census Shows America’s Diversity,” news release, March 24, 2011, http://www .census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/2010_census/ cb11-cn125.html. 21. CHIN Radio, “CHIN Radio,” accessed May 16, 2013, http://chinradio.com/chin-radio/. 22. U.S. Census Bureau, “2010 Census Shows America’s Diversity.” 23. U.S. Census Bureau, “Statistical Abstract of the United States, Table 54: Language Spoken at Home by State: 2009,” accessed May 16, 2013, http://www.census.gov/ compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0054.pdf. 24. Ibid. 25. Microsoft Corporation, “Employee Resource Groups and Networks at Microsoft,” accessed May 14, 2013, http:// www.microsoft.com/en-us/diversity/programs/ergen/ default.aspx. 26. Cedric Herring, “Does Diversity Pay?: Race, Gender, and the Business Case for Diversity,” American Sociological Review 74 (April 2009): 208–24. 27. Paul M. Barrett, “Selling the Supremes on Diversity,” Bloomberg Businessweek, October 22, 2012, 38. 28. Abhijit Rao, e-mail message to author, August 15, 2013. 29. Hofstede Centre, “What about the USA?” accessed May 14, 2013, http://www.geert-hofstede.com/hofstede_ united_states.shtml.

30. John Webb and Michael Keene, “The Impact of Discourse Communities on International Professional Communication,” in Exploring the Rhetoric of International Professional Communication: An Agenda for Teachers and Researchers, ed. Carl R. Lovitt and Dixie Goswami (Amityville, NY: Baywood, 1999), 81–109. 31. Morrison and Conaway, Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands, 29, 174–83. 32. Richard M. Steers, Carlos J. Sanchez-Runde, and Luciara Nardon, Management across Cultures: Challenges and Strategies (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 205–6. 33. Morrison and Conaway, Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands, 272 34. Morrison and Conaway, Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands, 94, 178; “Business Cards,” BusinessWeek SmallBiz, June/July 2008, 28; and Roy A. Cook and Gwen O. Cook, Guide to Business Etiquette (New York: Prentice Hall, 2011), 113. 35. Kathryn King-Metters and Ricard Metters, “Misunderstanding the Chinese Worker: Western Impressions Are Dated—And Probably Wrong,” Wall Street Journal, July 7, 2008, R11; Jason Leow, “Chinese Bigwigs Are Quick to Reach for the Hair Color: Politicians and Executives Look for Youth in a Bottle of Black Dye on the Sly,” Wall Street Journal, December 11, 2007, A1, A24. 36. Robert T. Moran, Philip R. Harris, and Sarah V. Moran, Managing Cultural Differences: Global Leadership Strategies for the 21st Century, 7th ed. (Boston: Elsevier, 2007), 341–42. 37. Ibid., 64. 38. Steers, Sanchez-Runde, and Nardon, Management across Cultures, 219. 39. Moran, Harris, and Moran, Managing Cultural Differences, 579. 40. Mike Kilen, “Watch Your Language: Rude or Polite? Gestures Vary with Cultures,” Des Moines Register, May 30, 2006, E1–2. 41. Morrison and Conaway, Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands, 180. 42. Martin J. Gannon, Understanding Global Cultures: Metaphorical Journeys through 23 Nations, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), 13. 43. Edward Twitchell Hall, Hidden Differences: Doing Business with the Japanese (Garden City, NY: Anchor-Doubleday, 1987), 25. 44. Moran, Harris, and Moran, Managing Cultural Differences, 445, 78. 45. Malcolm Fleschner, “Worldwide Winner,” Selling Power, November–December 2001, 54–61. 46. Ira Carnahan, “Presidential Timber Tends to Be Tall,” Forbes, May 19, 2004, http://www.forbes.com/2004/05/19/cz_ ic_0519beltway.html. 47. Morrison and Conaway, Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands, 138–39. 48. Craig Storti, Old World, New World: Bridging Cultural Differences: Britain, France, Germany, and the U.S. (Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, 2001), 209. 49. Morrison and Conaway, Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands, 30, 96, 133, 182. 50. Storti, Old World, New World; and Morrison and Conaway, Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands, 76. 51. Morrison and Conaway, Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands, 181, 185. 52. Nick Easen, “Don’t Send the Wrong Message,” Business 2.0, August 2005, 102.

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Working and Writing in Teams

Chapter Outline Team Interactions ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Roles in Teams Leadership in Teams Decision-Making Strategies Feedback Strategies Characteristics of Successful Student Teams Peer Pressure and Groupthink

Working on Diverse Teams Conflict Resolution ■

Steps in Conflict Resolution Criticism Responses ■ You-Attitude in Conflict Resolution ■

212

Effective Meetings Technology in Teams ■

Technologies for Meetings Technologies for Scheduling and Assignments ■ Technologies for Collaboration ■

Collaborative Writing ■

Planning the Work and the Document Composing the Drafts ■ Revising the Document ■ Editing and Proofreading the Document ■ Making the Team Process Work ■

Summary by Learning Objectives

NEWSWORTHY COMMUNICATION Animating Teamwork

n the business of making animated movies, working together as a team is incredibly important. To produce the dazzling effects we see in films such as Disney/ Pixar’s Brave requires collaboration between hundreds of people organized into focused teams. For example, one team of 14 animators at Pixar worked solely on Princess Merida’s hair and the complex muscles on her horse. Because of the importance of teamwork in animation, recruiters from major animation studios including Pixar, DreamWorks, and

Sony turn to an unexpected source: Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah. The 13-year-old animation program at BYU has turned out dozens of animators who are now contributing in major ways to blockbuster animated features. What makes the difference at BYU? It’s not necessarily talent. In fact, recruiters note that the students at BYU may not be as talented artistically as the students who come out of more traditional art schools. But, as one recruiter says, the BYU students have “a different mind-set.” The BYU program is focused on

collaboration, not individual artistic expression. All of the students work together on a single short film rather than individual projects. One result is that the students learn the best ways to contribute individually to a team effort. The teamwork at BYU is being noticed in the movie industry. The program has won several awards for its films, including Student Oscars, and its graduates are hired quickly by leading studios. The focus on collaborative teamwork prepares BYU students for the realities of modern animated filmmaking.

Source: Jon Mooallem, “When Hollywood Wants Good, Clean Fun, It Goes to Mormon Country,” New York Times, May 23, 2013, http://www.nytimes .com/2013/05/26/magazine/when-hollywood-wants-good-clean-fun-it-goes-to-mormon-country.html.

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Learning Objectives

http://www .teamtechnology .co.uk/ Log on to this website to find a wide range of articles and resources about interacting effectively in team settings. More specifically, click on “Team Roles” to find interactive links to aid in assessing yourself as a team member as well as determining roles of your fellow group members.

http://www .effectivemeetings .com/ Log on to EffectiveMeetings .com for articles offering advice about making meetings effective. What advice offered in these articles do you think would be helpful for conducting meetings with your fellow group members?

After studying this chapter, you will know LO 8-1

Different kinds of productive and nonproductive roles in teams.

LO 8-2

Group decision-making strategies.

LO 8-3

Characteristics of successful teams.

LO 8-4

Techniques for resolving conflict.

LO 8-5

Techniques for making meetings effective.

LO 8-6

Technologies to use in teamwork.

LO 8-7

Techniques for collaborative writing.

eamwork is crucial to success in an organization. The ability to work in a team is in the top 10 skills employers seek in job candidates.1 Some teams produce products, provide services, or recommend solutions to problems. Other teams—perhaps in addition to providing a service or recommending a solution—also produce documents. Today teamwork is facilitated by a wide range of technology tools such as wikis, chats, Skype, and teleconferencing, as well as collaborative features in Google Docs, Microsoft Office, and Prezi. (For more on the use of technology, see Chapter 9). Teamwork comes into play when a job is too big or the time is too short for one person to do the work, and also when no one person has the needed knowledge and skills. High stakes call for teamwork, both because the efforts of multiple talented people are needed and because no one person wants the sole responsibility for a possible failure. Many companies see teamwork as a way to foster creativity and to produce better results. Interpersonal communication, communication between people, is crucial for good teamwork. It relies heavily on interpersonal skills such as listening and networking. Chapter 4 discusses interpersonal skills vital for good teamwork. Skills in conflict resolution, meeting organization, and collaborative writing also help teamwork. These skills will make you more successful in your job, social groups, community service, and volunteer work. On writing teams, giving careful attention to both teamwork and the writing process (see Chapter 5) improves both the final product and members’ satisfaction with the team.

Team Interactions

LO 8-1

Teams can focus on different dimensions: ■

Informational dimensions focus on content: the problem, data, and possible solutions.

■

Procedural dimensions focus on method and process. How will the team make decisions? Who will do what? When will assignments be due?

■

Interpersonal dimensions focus on people, promoting friendliness, cooperation, and team loyalty.

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Different kinds of communication dominate during these stages of a task team’s life: formation, coordination, and formalization. During formation, when members meet and begin to define their task, teams need to develop social cohesiveness and procedures for meeting and acting. Interpersonal and procedural comments reduce the tension that always exists in a new team. Diving immediately into project work or insisting on information in this first stage can hurt the team’s long-term productivity. Teams are often most effective when they explicitly adopt ground rules. Figure8.1 lists some common ground rules used by workplace teams. During formation, conflicts frequently arise when the team defines tasks and procedures. Successful teams anticipate and resolve conflicts by clarifying what each member is supposed to do. They also set procedures: When and how often will they meet? Will decisions be made by a leader, as is the case with many advisory groups? By consensus or vote? Will the team evaluate individual performances? Will someone keep minutes? Successful teams analyze their tasks thoroughly and resolve conflicts through interpersonal communication before they begin to search for solutions. Coordination is the longest phase and the phase during which most of the team’s work is done. While procedural and interpersonal comments help maintain direction and friendliness, most of the comments should deal with information. Good information is essential to good decisions. Successful teams deliberately seek numerous possible solutions and carefully consider each before choosing the best one. They particularly avoid the temptation of going with the first solution that arises. Conflict may occur as the team debates these solutions. In formalization, the group finalizes its work. The success of this phase determines how well the group’s decision will be implemented. In this stage, the group seeks to forget earlier conflicts.

Roles in Teams Individual members can play multiple roles within teams, and these roles can change during the team’s work. Roles on teams can be positive or negative, as Figure8.2 explains.

Figure 8.1

Possible Team Ground Rules

• Start team meetings on time; end on time. • Attend regularly. • Come to the meeting prepared. • Leave the meeting with a clear understanding of what each member is to do next. • Focus comments on the issues. • Avoid personal attacks. • Listen to and respect members’ opinions. • Have everyone speak on key issues and procedures. • Address problems as you become aware of them. If you have a problem with another person, tell that person, not everyone else. • Do your share of the work. • Communicate immediately if you think you may not be able to fulfill an agreement. • Produce your work by the agreed-upon time.

215

Forming Team Expectations The initial meeting between team members can set the tone for successful teamwork. A contribution scorecard can help teams in the formation stage to establish expectations and goals. Team members fill out the scorecard in four areas: 1. Your development goals. 2. Steps you need to take to move toward your goals. 3. The knowledge and experience you can bring to bear on this project. 4. Ways to leverage the range of your knowledge and experience. After the initial meeting, team members use the scorecards to monitor and evaluate their progress. The team as a whole revisits the scorecards during the project to manage expectations and make progress toward goals. Adapted from Heidi K. Gardner, “Coming Through When It Matters Most,” Harvard Business Review, April 2012, 88.

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Teamwork Myths

Figure 8.2

Myth:

Positive roles and actions that help the team achieve its task goals include the following:

Reality:

Myth:

Reality:

Myth:

Reality:

Myth:

Reality:

Harmony is good. Well-managed conflict can generate more creative solutions and help a group’s performance. Add new members for fresh ideas and energy. The longer group membership stays stable, the better groups perform. With today’s technology, in-the-room team meetings are no longer necessary. Long-distance teams have a considerable disadvantage, so much so that many businesses pay the money to bring them together at key times. Larger teams are better, particularly when they include representatives of all constituencies. Large size is one of the worst impediments to team effectiveness. It allows individuals to shirk their share of the workload and requires more effort poured into coordinating activities.

Adapted from J. Richard Hackman, “Six Common Misperceptions about Teamwork,” Harvard Business Review (blog), June 7, 2011, http://blogs.hbr.org/cs/ 2011/06/six_common_ misperceptions_abou.html.

Positive and Negative Team Actions

• Seeking information and opinions—asking questions, identifying gaps in the team’s knowledge. • Giving information and opinions—answering questions, providing relevant information. • Summarizing—restating major points, summarizing decisions. • Synthesizing—pulling ideas together, connecting different elements of the team’s efforts. • Evaluating—comparing team processes and products to standards and goals. • Coordinating—planning work, giving directions, and fitting together contributions of team members. Positive roles and actions that help the team build loyalty, resolve conflicts, and function smoothly include the following behaviors: • Encouraging participation—demonstrating openness and acceptance, recognizing the contributions of members, calling on quieter team members. • Relieving tensions—joking and suggesting breaks and fun activities. • Checking feelings—asking members how they feel about team activities and sharing one’s own feelings with others. • Solving interpersonal problems—opening discussion of interpersonal problems in the team and suggesting ways to solve them. • Listening actively—showing team members that they have been heard and that their ideas are being taken seriously. Negative roles and actions that hurt the team’s product and process include the following: • Blocking—disagreeing with everything that is proposed. • Dominating—trying to run the team by ordering, shutting out others, and insisting on one’s own way. • Clowning—making unproductive jokes and diverting the team from the task. • Overspeaking—taking every opportunity to be the first to speak; insisting on personally responding to everyone else’s comments. • Withdrawing—being silent in meetings, not contributing, not helping with the work, not attending meetings.

Some actions can be positive or negative depending on how they are used. Active participation by members helps teams move forward, but too much talking from one member blocks contributions from others. Criticizing ideas is necessary if the team is to produce the best solution, but criticizing every idea raised without ever suggesting possible solutions blocks a team. Jokes in moderation can defuse tension and make the team work more fun. Too many jokes or inappropriate jokes can make the team’s work more difficult.

Leadership in Teams You may have noted that “leader” was not one of the roles listed in Figure8.2. Every team has one or more leaders, who also perform some of the actions listed in the figure. Frequently the leader is formally designated or chosen, but sometimes leaders emerge during the teamwork process. Being a leader does not mean doing all the work yourself. Indeed, someone who implies that he or she has the best ideas and can do the best work is likely hindering the work of the team.

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Effective teams balance three kinds of leadership, which parallel the three team dimensions: ■

Informational leaders generate and evaluate ideas and text.

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Interpersonal leaders monitor the team’s process, check people’s feelings, and resolve conflicts.

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Procedural leaders set the agenda, make sure that everyone knows what’s due for the next meeting, communicate with absent team members, and check to ensure assignments are carried out.

While it’s possible for one person to assume all these responsibilities, in many teams the three kinds of leadership are taken on by three (or more) different people. Some teams formally or informally rotate or share these responsibilities, so that everyone—and no one—is a leader. Studies have shown that people who talk a lot, listen effectively, and respond nonverbally to other members of the team are considered to be leaders.2 As team projects progress, team leadership evolves and shifts in response to the needs of the team. For example, in the early brainstorming stages, the informational leader may take charge of meetings. As the team moves into making assignments, however, the procedural leader may take over. Effective team leaders must be more than simply the boss. Leaders employ interpersonal communication and persuasion to help create a good team environment and to encourage productivity. The best leaders work with other team members, talk and listen to followers, help all team members develop their skills, and communicate a clear strategy to achieve the team’s goals. Different projects require different types of leaders. Defining or appointing a leader for a project has been shown to increase productivity and reduce conflict in teams. If too many people attempt to lead, more conflicts arise and productivity goes down. If no one tries to lead, teams experience less conflict, but also much less productivity.3 Choosing a good leader has a direct effect on productivity. In fact, one study showed that a good leader increases the output of the team as much as if the team had an extra member.4 Understanding effective leadership can help teams minimize conflict, generate more and better ideas, and ultimately have a better experience.

Decision-Making Strategies

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Probably the least effective decision-making strategy is to let the person who talks first, last, loudest, or most determine the decision. Most teams instead aim to air different points of view with the objective of identifying the best choice, or at least a choice that seems good enough for the team’s purposes. The team discussion considers the pros and cons of each idea. In many teams, someone willingly plays devil’s advocate to look for possible flaws in an idea. To give ideas a fair hearing, someone should also develop an idea’s positive aspects. After the team has considered alternatives, it needs a method for picking one to implement. Typical selection methods include voting and consensus. Voting is quick but may leave people in the minority unhappy with and uncommitted to the majority’s plan. Coming to consensus takes time but usually results in speedier implementation of ideas. Airing preferences early in the process, through polls before meetings and straw votes during meetings, can sometimes help teams establish consensus more quickly. Even in situations where consensus is not possible, good teams ensure everyone’s ideas are

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considered. Most people will agree to support the team’s decision, even if it was not their choice, as long as they feel they have been heard. Businesspeople in different nations have varying preferences about these two methods. An international survey of 15,000 managers and employees found that four-fifths of the Japanese respondents preferred consensus, but a little more than one-third of the Americans did. Other nations in which consensus was preferred included Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France.5 Two strategies that are often useful in organizational teams are the standard problem-solving process and dot planning. The standard problem-solving process has multiple steps: 1. Identify the task or problem. What is the team trying to do? 2. Understand what the team has to deliver, in what form, by what due date. Identify available resources. 3. Gather information, share it with all team members, and examine it critically. 4. Establish criteria. What would the ideal solution include? Which elements of that solution would be part of a less-than-ideal but still acceptable solution? What legal, financial, moral, or other limitations might keep a solution from being implemented? 5. Brainstorm solutions (see Figure8.3). 6. Measure the alternatives against the criteria. 7. Choose the best solution. Dot planning offers a way for large teams to choose priorities quickly. First, the team brainstorms ideas, recording each on pages that are put on the wall. Then each individual gets two strips of three to five adhesive dots in different colors. One color represents high priority, the other lower priority. People then walk up to the pages and stick dots by the points they care most about. Some teams allow only one dot from one person on any one item; others allow someone who is really passionate about an idea to put all of his or her dots on it. The dots make it easy to see which items the team believes are most and least important.

Figure 8.3

Brainstorming Techniques

Here are some techniques that will help produce successful team brainstorming sessions: • Identify a clear, concrete goal before you start. That allows you to establish some boundaries for ideas—about practicality or cost, for example—and helps you keep your brainstorming session focused. • Ensure everyone involved in the meeting knows the goal ahead of time. This step gives everyone a chance to have ideas ready when they come to the meeting. • Set limits on meeting duration and size. An hour is enough time for a focused discussion, and it’s easier for everyone to participate and be heard in a small team. • Let the ideas flow freely without judgment. Any idea, however impractical, might inspire the best solution, and spending time weeding out weak ideas can stifle creativity. • Build on each other’s ideas. • Brainstorm with a diverse team. Good ideas come from teams of people with different perspectives.

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What happens if your team can’t agree, or can’t reach consensus? Teambuilding expert Bob Frisch suggests some strategies for working through a deadlock. In addition to using standard group techniques (setting clear goals, brainstorming solutions, and weighing the pros and cons of each solution), you should ■

Use the current sticking point as the start for a new round of brainstorming. If there are two solutions that your team can’t choose between, break the deadlock by brainstorming new solutions that combine the old ones. That will get the team making progress again and get new ideas on the table.

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Instead of rushing to a decision, allow time for team members to consider the options. Sometimes people refuse to compromise to avoid making a bad snap decision. Giving your team time to consider the options will take the pressure off. For especially complex decisions, schedule multiple meetings with time in between to do research and to digest the pros and cons of each solution.

■

Allow team members to make their decisions confidentially. People might refuse to state an opinion—or change an opinion—if they feel their opinions and reasoning will be judged negatively by the group. A secret ballot or other confidential form of “discussion” can help break a deadlock by giving team members an opportunity to voice their opinions without being judged or embarrassed.6

Feedback Strategies As soon as the team begins to put its decisions into play, it needs to begin generating and heeding feedback. Sometimes this feedback will be external; it will come from supervisors, suppliers, clients, and customers. It should also, however, come from within the team. Teams frequently evaluate individual team members’ performances, team performance, task progress, and team procedures. Feedback should be frequent and regular. Many teams have weekly feedback as well as feedback connected to specific stages of their task. Regular feedback is a good way to keep team members contributing their share of the work in a timely fashion. While feedback needs to be honest and incorporate criticism, such critiques can be phrased as positively as possible (“please get your figures in for the Wednesday update” rather than “do you think you can make the Wednesday deadline this time?”). And don’t forget to praise. Research shows that teams with a higher ratio of positive-to-negative interactions do better work.7

Characteristics of Successful Student Teams

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Studies of student teams completing class projects have found that students in successful teams were not necessarily more skilled or more experienced than students in less successful teams. Studies by a professor at MIT found patterns of communication to be “the most important predictor of a team’s success.”8 Successful and less successful teams communicate differently. ■

Successful teams assign specific tasks, set clear deadlines, and schedule frequent meetings. They also regularly communicate as a team about each member’s progress. In less successful teams, members are not sure what they are supposed to be doing or when it is needed. Less successful teams meet less often.

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Teams Use Checklists As knowledge continues to grow, more and more tasks have to be accomplished by teams. One person no longer has the knowledge, skills, or time to do them. Teams perform organ transplants, run marketing campaigns, and create proposals for billion-dollar projects. Construction is a good example. Today skyscrapers are constructed by 16 different trades. To coordinate their work, the structural engineering firm in charge uses enormous checklists created by a team with at least one person from each of the 16 trades. As work is completed, or problems arise, new checklists are created. Heart surgery is another example. A committee formed from three American Heart Association councils reported that errors in heart surgery were often not a lack of skill but rather a lack of communication and teamwork. They strongly recommended that cardiac surgery teams use checklists before each operation. Adapted from Atul Gawande, The Checklist Manifesto: How to Get Things Right (New York: Henry Holt, 2009), chap. 3; and “Improved Teamwork in Cardiac Operating Room Is Key to Improving Patient Safety,” Healio Cardiology Today, August 7, 2013, http://www.healio. com/cardiology/surgery/news/ online/%7B45867493-86EC4FEA-862A-EA5529A76043%7D/ Improved-teamwork-in-cardiacoperating-room-is-keyto-improving-patientsafety.

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Successful teams meet and talk through plans and conflicts face-to-face. They use nonverbal cues as well as listening skills to build trust and communicate ideas. Less successful teams rely more on e-mail, social networking, and other electronic communication tools.

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Successful teams recognize that they have to build trust with each other through goodwill, active listening, and consistent participation. Teams who trust each other tend to work together to solve problems that impact the whole team. Less successful teams expect members to complete their own parts, and fail to bring those parts together into a coherent whole, behaviors that also appear in unsuccessful workplace teams.9

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Successful teams recognize the contribution of every team member to the team’s success, and take time to acknowledge each member during team meetings. When team members know that their efforts are noticed and appreciated by their peers, they’re much more willing to contribute to the team. Less successful teams take individual contributions for granted.

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Successful teams listen carefully to each other and respond to emotions as well as words. Less successful teams pay less attention to what is said and how it is said.

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In successful teams, members work more evenly and actively on the project.10 They find ways to cater to each other’s schedules and work preferences. Successful teams even find ways to use members who don’t like working in teams. For example, a student who doesn’t want to be a “team player” can be a freelancer for her team, completing assignments by herself and e-mailing them to the team. Less successful teams have a smaller percentage of active members and frequently have some members who do very little on the final project.

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Successful teams make important decisions together. In less successful teams, a subgroup or an individual makes decisions.

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Successful teams listen to criticism and try to improve their performance on the basis of it. In less successful teams, criticism is rationalized.

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Successful teams deal directly with conflicts that emerge; unsuccessful teams try to ignore conflicts.

As you no doubt realize, these characteristics of good teams actually apply to most teams, not just student teams. A survey of engineering project teams found that 95% of the team members thought that good communication was the reason for team success, and poor communication the reason for team failures.11

Peer Pressure and Groupthink Teams that never express conflict may be experiencing groupthink. Groupthink is the tendency for teams to put such a high premium on agreement that they directly or indirectly punish dissent. Research has shown that teams produce better documents when they disagree over substantive issues of content and document design. The disagreement does not need to be angry: someone can simply say, “Yes, and here’s another way we could do it.” Deciding among two (or more) alternatives forces the proposer to explain the rationale for an idea. Even when the team adopts the original idea, considering alternatives rather than quickly accepting the first idea produces better writing.12 Many people feel so much reluctance to express open disagreement that they will say they agree even when objective circumstances would suggest

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the first speaker cannot be right. In a series of classic experiments in the 1950s, Solomon Asch showed the influence of peer pressure. People sitting around a table were shown a large card with a line and asked to match it to the line of the same length on another card. It’s a simple test: people normally match the lines correctly almost 100% of the time. However, in the experiment, all but one of the people in the group had been instructed to give false answers for several of the trials. When the group gave an incorrect answer, the focal person accepted the group’s judgment 36.8% of the time. When someone else also gave a different answer—even if it was another wrong answer—the focal person accepted the group’s judgment only 9% of the time.13 The experimenters varied the differences in line lengths, hoping to create a situation in which even the most conforming subjects would trust their own senses. But some people continued to accept the group’s judgment, even when one line was seven inches longer than the other. A classic example of groupthink, and one illustrating the sometimes constraining influence of a powerful team leader, occurred during President Kennedy’s administration. The deliberations of Kennedy and his advisers illustrated classic characteristics of groupthink such as premature agreement and suppression of doubts. Kennedy guided the discussions in a way that minimized disagreements. The result was the disastrous decision to launch the Bay of Pigs invasion, whose failure led to the Cuban Missile Crisis. However, Kennedy subsequently analyzed what had gone wrong with the decision process, and he had his advisers do likewise. He used these analyses to change the process for the Cuban Missile Crisis. Although the team again included Kennedy and many of the same advisers, it avoided groupthink. Kennedy ordered the team to question, allowed free-ranging discussions, used separate subteam meetings, and sometimes left the room himself to avoid undue influence of the discussions.14 Teams that “go along with the crowd” and suppress conflict ignore the full range of alternatives, seek only information that supports the positions they already favor, and fail to prepare contingency plans to cope with foreseeable setbacks. A business suffering from groupthink may launch a new product that senior executives support but for which there is no demand. Student teams suffering from groupthink turn in inferior documents. The best correctives to groupthink are to consciously search for additional alternatives, to test one’s assumptions against those of a range of other people, and to protect the right of people on a team to disagree. When power roles are a factor, input may need to be anonymous.

Working on Diverse Teams In any organization, you will work with people whose backgrounds and working styles differ from yours. Residents of small towns and rural areas have different notions of friendliness than do people from big cities. The values and attitudes of marketing people tend to differ from those of researchers or engineers. In addition, differences arise from gender, class, race and ethnicity, religion, age, sexual orientation, and physical ability. Even people who share some of these characteristics are likely to differ in personality type. These differences affect how people behave on teams and what they expect from teams. For example, in a business negotiation, people from Asia are more likely to see the goal of negotiation as development of a relationship between the parties. In contrast, American negotiators (especially the lawyers on the team) are more likely to see the purpose of a negotiation as producing a signed contract.15 Such differences are likely to affect what people talk about and how they talk. Some Western cultures use direct approaches; other cultures,

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There’s No Boss At Valve Corp., a video game maker, there are no bosses, supervisors, or even assigned projects. In fact, since its founding in 1996, Valve has never had a boss. All of the employees are equal, and they make decisions on projects, hiring, firing, and even salaries by team consensus. How does it work? Employees develop their own projects and recruit peers in the company to help them. As the teams work, a leader emerges for the project and acts as the manager and coordinator until the project ends. Team members can move in and out of teams at will, which allows them to work on projects they care about. Working without bosses can be a challenge, and it takes many employees months to adjust to working at Valve. But it seems to be working. Employees feel an ownership of the company and its products. They are more satisfied with their experience at work and with their final products. Would you like to work at Valve? Adapted from Rachel Emma Silverman, “Who’s the Boss? There Isn’t One,” Wall Street Journal, June 20, 2012, B1.

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International Teams IBM programmer Rob Nicholson has 50 colleagues from three countries—England, India, and Canada—on his software team. Global teams such as his have to work to overcome language and cultural barriers. Workers worried about having their jobs outsourced have to learn to share information. Workers from more polite or reserved cultures have to conquer their reluctance to interrupt people and instead contact colleagues immediately with questions. The team collaborates through sophisticated electronic communications. Team wikis allow members to post reports on their own progress and comment on the work of other team members. Team members get automatic alerts when major components of their project change. Completed program segments are put into a shared database. Work stations display photos and personal details of team members so new programmers can learn about their teammates and where to go for help. Instant messaging keeps team members in touch. A vital task for this team is dividing the work into small pieces. Most projects are divided into two-week chunks; those chunks are further divided into pieces that one programmer can complete in one or two days. The task list is kept on the team wiki. As programmers complete their tasks, they take the top task from the wiki list. When the software fails a test, the entire team stops programming and focuses on finding the problem. In fact, the British office has rigged a red emergency light on its testing machine. Clear and frequent communications among team members are a vital key for the success of the project. Adapted from Phred Dvorak, “How Teams Can Work Well Together from Far Apart,” Wall Street Journal, September 17, 2007, B4.

Diverse teams can extend the range of group efforts and ideas.

especially Eastern cultures, consider such approaches rude and respond by withholding information. Other pitfalls of team differences exist. Sometimes people who sense a difference may attribute problems in the team to prejudice, when other factors may be responsible. Also, a significant body of research shows that accurate interpretation of emotions in diverse teams is influenced by factors such as gender, nationality, race, and status.16 On the other hand, another body of research shows that ethnically diverse teams produce more and higher-quality ideas.17 One study showed that simply including more women actually increases the team’s ability to perform better.18 Research has also found that over time, as team members focus on their task, mission, or profession, cultural differences become less significant than the role of being a team member.19 Sometimes the culture to which the team belongs is a distinct asset, uniting strangers in positive ways and giving them strengths to use in high-stakes situations. With their team skills enhanced by the organizational culture, airline crews and emergency teams may perform heroically in a crisis. Savvy team members play to each other’s strengths and devise strategies for dealing with differences. These efforts can benefit the whole team. A study of multicultural teams published in the Harvard Business Review found acknowledging cultural gaps openly and cooperatively working through them an ideal strategy for surmounting cultural differences. For example, a U.S. and U.K. team used their differing approaches to decision making to create a higher-quality decision. The U.K. members used their slower approach to analyze possible pitfalls, and the U.S. members used their “forge ahead” approach to move the project along. Both sides appreciated the contributions of the other members.20

Conflict Resolution

LO 8-4

Conflicts are going to arise in any group of intelligent people who care about their task. Yet many of us feel so uncomfortable with conflict that we pretend

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it doesn’t exist. Conflict does not mean the team has failed. In fact, conflicts are often the result of working through different perspectives to create opportunities. Although conflicts can be healthy for a project, they must be resolved to maintain effective teamwork. Unacknowledged or unresolved conflicts rarely go away: they fester, making the next interchange more difficult. To reduce the number of conflicts in a team, ■

Make responsibilities and ground rules clear at the beginning.

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Discuss problems as they arise, rather than letting them fester till people explode.

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Realize that team members are not responsible for each others’ happiness.

Despite these efforts, most teams experience some conflict, and that conflict needs to be resolved. When a conflict is emotionally charged, people will need a chance to calm themselves before they can arrive at a well-reasoned solution. Meeting expert John Tropman recommends the “two-meeting rule” for controversial matters. The first meeting is a chance for everyone to air a point of view about the issue. The second meeting is the one at which the team reaches a decision. The time between the two meetings becomes a cooling-off period.21 Figure8.4 suggests several possible solutions to conflicts that student teams experience. Often the symptom arises from a feeling of not being respected or appreciated by the team. Therefore, many problems can be averted if people advocate for their ideas in a positive way. One way to do this is to devote as much effort to positive observations as possible. Another technique is to state analysis rather than mere opinions. Instead of “I wouldn’t read an eight-page brochure,” the member of a team could say, “Tests we did a couple of years ago found a better response for two-page brochures. Could we move some of that information to our website?” As in this example, an opinion can vary from person to person; stating an opinion does not provide a basis for the team to make a decision. In contrast, analysis provides objective information for the team to consider.

Steps in Conflict Resolution Dealing successfully with conflict requires attention both to the issues and to people’s feelings. The following techniques will help you resolve conflicts constructively.

1. Make Sure the People Involved Really Disagree. Sometimes different conversational styles, differing interpretations of data, or faulty inferences create apparent conflicts when no real disagreement exists. Someone who asks “Are those data accurate?” may just be asking for source information, not questioning the conclusions the team drew from the data. Sometimes someone who’s under a lot of pressure may explode. But the speaker may just be venting anger and frustration; he or she may not in fact be angry at the person who receives the explosion. One way to find out if a person is just venting is to ask, “Is there something you’d like me to do?” 2. Check that Everyone’s Information Is Correct. Sometimes people are operating on outdated or incomplete information. People may also act on personal biases or opinions rather than data.

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A Team Disaster Successful teams must be built on excellent cooperation and communication. The Deepwater Horizon disaster in the Gulf of Mexico exposed the failures of the teams involved with the operation. The corporations involved did not work together as a team. The team on the oil rig did not understand who had authority during an emergency. Written safety guidelines on the rig required multiple people to make decisions about responding to emergencies, but crew members wasted critical minutes when the rig caught fire attempting to decide whether they could shut off the well. As the captain of the rig and 10 other managers and crew members discussed the situation, Andrea Fleytas, a 23-year-old rig worker, took charge and radioed a distress signal to the Coast Guard. She was promptly reprimanded for doing so without the captain’s permission. Successful teams, whether composed of individuals or corporations working together, must be built on excellent cooperation and communication. People on the teams must be aware of correct procedures and their own roles and responsibilities. In the case of the Deepwater Horizon disaster, failures in teamwork at all levels ended up in a human and environmental tragedy. Sources: Stephen Power and Ben Casselman, “White House Probe Blames BP, Industry in Gulf Blast,” Wall Street Journal, January 6, 2011, A2; and Douglas A. Blackmon, Vanessa O’Connell, Alexandra Berzon, and Ana Campoy, “There Was ‘Nobody in Charge,’” Wall Street Journal, May 28, 2010, A6–A7.

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Figure 8.4

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Troubleshooting Team Problems

Symptom

Possible solutions

We can’t find a time to meet that works for all of us.

a. Find out why people can’t meet at certain times. Some reasons suggest their own solutions. For example, if someone has to stay home with small children, perhaps the team could meet at that person’s home. b. Assign out-of-class work to “committees” to work on parts of the project. c. Use technology (e.g., Skype, Google Docs, wikis, e-mail) to share, discuss, and revise drafts.

One person isn’t doing his or her fair share.

a. Find out what is going on. Is the person overcommitted? Does he or she feel unappreciated? Is he or she unprepared? Those are different problems you’d solve in different ways. b. Early on, do things to build team loyalty. Get to know each other as writers and as people. Sometimes do something fun together. c. Encourage the person to contribute. “Mary, what do you think?” “Jim, which part of this would you like to draft?” Then find something to praise in the work. “Thanks for getting us started.” d. If someone misses a meeting, assign someone else to bring the person up to speed. People who miss meetings for legitimate reasons (job interviews, illness) but don’t find out what happened may become less committed to the team. e. Consider whether strict equality is the most important criterion. On a given project, some people may have more knowledge or time than others. Sometimes the best team product results from letting people do different amounts of work. f. Even if you divide up the work, make all decisions as a team: what to write about, which evidence to include, what graphs to use, what revisions to make. People excluded from decisions become less committed to the team.

I seem to be the only one on the team who cares about quality.

a. Find out why other members “don’t care.” If they received low grades on early assignments, stress that good ideas and attention to detail can raise grades. Perhaps the team should meet with the instructor to discuss what kinds of work will pay the highest dividends. b. Volunteer to do extra work. Sometimes people settle for something that’s just OK because they don’t have the time or resources to do excellent work. They might be happy for the work to be done—if they don’t have to do it. c. Be sure that you’re respecting what each person can contribute. Team members sometimes withdraw when one person dominates and suggests that he or she is “better” than other members. d. Fit specific tasks to individual abilities. People generally do better work in areas they see as their strengths. A visual learner who doesn’t care about the written report may do an excellent job on the accompanying visuals.

People in the team don’t seem willing to disagree. We end up going with the first idea suggested.

a. Brainstorm so you have multiple possibilities to consider. b. After an idea is suggested, have each person on the team suggest a way it could be improved. c. Appoint someone to be a devil’s advocate. d. Have each person on the team write a draft. It’s likely the drafts will be different, and you’ll have several options to mix and match. e. Talk about good ways to offer criticism. Sometimes people don’t disagree because they’re afraid that other team members won’t tolerate disagreement.

One person just criticizes everything.

a. Ask the person to follow up the criticism with a suggestion for improvement. b. Talk about ways to express criticism tactfully. “I think we need to think about x” is more tactful than “You’re wrong.” c. If the criticism is about ideas and writing (not about people), value it. Ideas and documents need criticism if we are to improve them.

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3. Discover the Needs Each Person Is Trying to Meet. Sometimes determining the real needs makes it possible to see a new solution. The presenting problem that surfaces as the subject of dissension may or may not be the real problem. For example, a worker who complains about the hours he’s putting in may in fact be complaining not about the hours themselves but about not feeling appreciated. A supervisor who complains that the other supervisors don’t invite her to meetings may really feel that the other managers don’t accept her as a peer. Sometimes people have trouble seeing beyond the presenting problem because they’ve been taught to suppress their anger, especially toward powerful people. One way to tell whether the presenting problem is the real problem is to ask, “If this were solved, would I be satisfied?” If the answer is no, then the problem that presents itself is not the real problem. Solving the presenting problem won’t solve the conflict. Keep probing until you get to the real conflict. 4. Search for Alternatives. Sometimes people are locked into conflict because they see too few alternatives. People tend to handle complexity by looking for ways to simplify. In a team, someone makes a suggestion, so the team members discuss it as if it is the only alternative. The team generates more alternatives only if the first one is unacceptable. As a result, the team’s choice depends on the order in which team members think of ideas. When a decision is significant, the team needs a formal process to identify alternatives before moving on to a decision. Many teams use brainstorming when they search for alternatives. 5. Repair Negative Feelings. Conflict can emerge without anger and without escalating the disagreement, as the next section shows. But if people’s feelings have been hurt, the team needs to deal with those feelings to resolve the conflict constructively. Only when people feel respected and taken seriously can they take the next step of trusting others on the team.

Criticism Responses Conflict is particularly difficult to resolve when someone else criticizes or attacks us directly. When we are criticized, our natural reaction is to defend ourselves—perhaps by counterattacking. The counterattack prompts the critic to defend him- or herself. The conflict escalates; feelings are hurt; issues become muddied and more difficult to resolve. Just as resolving conflict depends on identifying the needs each person is trying to meet, so dealing with criticism depends on understanding the real concern of the critic. Constructive ways to respond to criticism and get closer to the real concern include paraphrasing, checking for feelings, checking inferences, and buying time with limited agreement.

Paraphrasing To paraphrase, repeat in your own words the verbal content of the critic’s message. The purposes of paraphrasing are (1) to be sure that you have heard the critic accurately, (2) to let the critic know what his or her statement means to you, and (3) to communicate that you are taking the critic and his or her feelings seriously. Criticism:

You guys are stonewalling my requests for information.

Paraphrase:

You think that we don’t give you the information you need.

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A Team of Rivals A major focus of Doris Kearns Goodwin’sbook Team of Rivals is Abraham Lincoln’s leadership style, particularly the way he built his leadership team. President Obama said if he could take only one book, apart from the Bible, with him to the White House it would be this book. The following are some of Goodwin’s key points: ■

Lincoln chose his cabinet from his most able rivals, men who were guaranteed to hold different views. His ability to weave these men into an effective team showed great emotional intelligence.

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These men were confident enough that they were not afraid to question Lincoln or argue with him. The resulting exchange of ideas strengthened Lincoln’s decision making.

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These men also had temperaments different from Lincoln’s, helping Lincoln find a balanced approach to leading the war.

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Lincoln shared both credit for successes and responsibility for failures, including failures of others. Goodwin calls this tactic creating “a reservoir of good feeling.” Through this approach Lincoln earned the intense loyalty of his team.

Adapted from Doris Kearns Goodwin, “Leadership Lessons from Abraham Lincoln,” Harvard Business Review 87, no.4 (2009): 43–47.

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Scientific Teams For centuries Western innovation has been led by individuals, such as Da Vinci, Darwin, and Einstein. But in recent years, teamwork has become the model that drives innovation, especially in the sciences. Benjamin Jones, a professor at Northwestern University’s Kellogg School of Management, analyzed 19.9 million papers and 2.1 million patents, and found that 99% of scientific subfields have seen not only increased levels of teamwork but also increases in the sizes of teams. According to Jones, the best research now comes from teams. Among the most cited studies, papers authored by teams are cited more than twice as often as papers by individual authors. Papers cited more than 1,000 times—“home run papers”—are more than six times as likely to be the result of team research. What is behind this shift toward teamwork? In part, Jones claims, researchers develop narrow expertise during years of graduate study, requiring them to rely on colleagues in other fields to provide connections between areas of study. Additionally, the complex nature of twenty-first-century problems demands collaborative efforts in order to truly transform our understanding of those problems. Adapted from Jonah Lehrer, “Sunset of the Solo Scientist,” Wall Street Journal, February 5, 2011, C12.

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The Communication Process

Checking for Feelings When you check the critic’s feelings, you identify the emotions that the critic seems to be expressing verbally or nonverbally. The purposes of checking feelings are to try to understand (1) the critic’s emotions, (2) the importance of the criticism for the critic, and (3) the unspoken ideas and feelings that may actually be more important than the voiced criticism. Criticism:

You guys are stonewalling my requests for information.

Feelings check:

You sound pretty angry, yes?

Always ask the other person if you are right in your perception. Even the best reader of nonverbal cues is sometimes wrong.

Checking for Inferences When you check the inferences you draw from criticism, you identify the implied meaning of the verbal and nonverbal content of the criticism, taking the statement a step further than the words of the critic to try to understand why the critic is bothered by the action or attitude under discussion. The purposes of checking inferences are (1) to identify the real (as opposed to the presenting) problem and (2) to communicate the feeling that you care about resolving the conflict. Criticism:

You guys are stonewalling my requests for information.

Inference:

Are you saying that you need more information from our team?

Inferences can be faulty. In the above interchange, the critic might respond, “I don’t need more information. I just think you should give it to me without my having to file three forms in triplicate every time I want some data.”

Buying Time with Limited Agreement Buying time is a useful strategy for dealing with criticisms that really sting. When you buy time with limited agreement, you avoid escalating the conflict (as an angry statement might do) but also avoid yielding to the critic’s point of view. To buy time, restate the part of the criticism you agree to be true. (This is often a fact, rather than the interpretation or evaluation the critic has made of that fact.) Then let the critic respond, before you say anything else. The purposes of buying time are (1) to allow you time to think when a criticism really hits home and threatens you, so that you can respond to the criticism rather than simply reacting defensively, and (2) to suggest to the critic that you are trying to hear what he or she is saying. Criticism:

You guys are stonewalling my requests for information.

Limited agreement:

It’s true that the cost projections you asked for last week still aren’t ready.

DO NOT go on to justify or explain. A “Yes, but . . . ” statement is not a time-buyer.

You-Attitude in Conflict Resolution You-attitude means looking at things from the audience’s point of view, respecting the audience, and protecting the audience’s ego (see Chapter 3 for more on you-attitude). Resolving conflicts or persuading others involves three kinds of awareness: situational awareness (showing that you understand the situation), personal awareness (showing that you understand the other person), and solution awareness (showing that you understand or are seeking

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a path to resolution).22 The way you communicate your awareness comes through in how you employ you-attitude. The you statements that many people use when they’re angry attack the audience; they do not illustrate you-attitude. Instead, substitute statements about your own feelings. In conflict, I statements show good you-attitude! Lacks you-attitude:

You never do your share of the work

You-attitude:

I feel that I’m doing more than my share of the work on this project.

Lacks you-attitude:

Even you should be able to run the report through a spelling checker.

You-attitude:

I’m not willing to have my name on a report with so many spelling errors. I did lots of the writing, and I don’t think I should have to do the proofreading and spell checking, too.

Effective Meetings

To share information.

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To brainstorm ideas.

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To evaluate ideas.

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To develop plans.

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To make decisions.

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To create a document.

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To motivate members.

Fun at Berkshire Hathaway’s Annual Meeting [In his 2012 letter to the shareholders of Berkshire Hathaway, Chairman and CEO Warren Buffett gives a three-page preview of what to anticipate at the annual meeting. Here are some colorful excerpts.] ■

The doors will open at 7 a.m., and at 7:30 we will have our second International Newspaper Tossing Challenge. The target will be the porch of a Clayton Home, precisely 35 feet from the throwing line. Last year I successfully fought off all challengers. But now Berkshire has acquired a large number of newspapers and with them came much tossing talent (or so the throwers claim).

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If you decide to leave during the day’s question periods, please do so while Charlie is talking.

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The best reason to exit, of course, is to shop. ... Remember: Anyone who says money can’t buy happiness simply hasn’t shopped at our meeting.

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Around 1 p.m. on Sunday, I will begin clerking at Borsheims. Last year my sales totaled $1.5 million. This year I won’t quit until I hit $2 million. Because I need to leave well before sundown, I will be desperate to do business. Come take advantage of me. Ask for my “Crazy Warren” price.

LO 8-5

Meetings have always taken a large part of the average manager’s week. Although technology has eliminated some meetings, the increased number of teams means that meetings are even more frequent. Despite their advantages for communication, meetings are not always good. Many productive workers see them as too often a waste of time, interrupting valuable work, while less productive workers see them as a pleasant break. However, meetings can easily be made more effective. Meetings can have multiple purposes: ■

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When meetings combine two or more purposes, it’s useful to make the purposes explicit. For example, in the meeting of a company’s board of directors, some items are presented for information. Discussion is possible, but the group will not be asked to make a decision. Other items are presented for action; the group will be asked to vote. A business meeting might specify that the first half hour will be time for brainstorming, with the second half hour devoted to evaluation. Formal meetings are run under strict rules, like the rules of parliamentary procedure summarized in Robert’s Rules of Order. Motions must be made formally before a topic can be debated. Each point is settled by a vote. Minutes record each motion and the vote on it. Formal rules help the meeting run smoothly if the group is very large or if the agenda is very long. Informal meetings, which are much more common in the workplace, are run more loosely. Votes may not be taken if most people seem to agree. Minutes may not be kept. Informal meetings are better for team-building and problem solving.

Bullets quoted from Warren Buffett, “Letters 2012,” Berkshire Hathaway Inc., accessed April 24, 2013, http://www.berkshirehathaway .com/letters/2012ltr.pdf.

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Being Taken Seriously in Meetings It’s frustrating to speak in a meeting and have people ignore what you say. Here are some tips for being taken seriously: ■

Prepare. Anticipate points that will be made and how you want to respond to them. Collect facts and numbers to support your responses.

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Find an ally in the organization and agree ahead of time to acknowledge each other’s contributions to the meeting, whether you agree or disagree with the point being made. Explicit disagreement signals that the comment is worth taking seriously.

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Link your comment to the comment of a powerful person, even if logic suffers a bit. For example, say, “John is saying that we should focus on excellence, AND I think we can become stronger by encouraging diversity.”

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Use the style of language that powerful people in your organization use.

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Use appropriate body language (see Chapter 4). Sit up straight, look interested in the discussion.

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Speak with confidence; do not sound tentative. Avoid trivializing openers such as “This might just be me ...,” or “This might sound strange, but ....”

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Repeat your ideas. Put important ideas in an e-mail before the meeting.

The Communication Process

Planning the agenda is the foundation of a good meeting. A good agenda indicates ■

A list of items for consideration.

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Whether each item is presented for information, for discussion, or for a decision.

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Who is sponsoring or introducing each item.

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How much time is allotted for each item.

Although a time schedule on an agenda is frequently not followed exactly, it does inform participants about the relative importance of the agenda items. In general, the information on an agenda should be specific enough that participants can come to the meeting prepared with ideas, background information, and any other resources they need for completing each agenda item. Many groups start their agendas with routine items on which agreement will be easy. Doing so gets the meeting off to a positive start. However, it may also waste the time when people are most attentive. Another approach is to put routine items at the end. If there’s a long list of routine items, sometimes you can dispense with them in an omnibus motion. An omnibus motion allows a group to approve many items together rather than voting on each separately. A single omnibus motion might cover multiple changes to operational guidelines, or a whole slate of candidates for various offices, or various budget recommendations. It’s important to schedule controversial items early in the meeting, when energy levels are high, and to allow enough time for full discussion. Giving a controversial item only half an hour at the end of the day or evening makes people suspect that the leaders are trying to manipulate them. Pay attention to people and process as well as to the task at hand. At informal meetings, a good leader observes nonverbal feedback and invites everyone to participate. If conflict seems to be getting out of hand, a leader may want to focus attention on the group process and ways that it could deal with conflict, before getting back to the substantive issues. Highly sensitive topics may require two or more meetings, the first to air the subject and people’s feelings and the second to vote. The time between the two gives participants an opportunity to cool off and informally discuss the issues involved. If the group doesn’t formally vote, the leader should summarize the group’s consensus after each point. At the end of the meeting, the leader should summarize all decisions and remind the group who is responsible for implementing or following up on each item. If no other notes are taken, someone should record the decisions and assignments. Long minutes will be most helpful if assignments are set off visually from the narrative.

Technology in Teams

LO 8-6

Now that companies are more spread out geographically than ever before, team members may be scattered across different offices, states, and even countries. Yet the teams are still expected to work together effectively and produce results. New technologies provide ways for distributed teams to meet, create schedules and assignments, and collaborate on projects.

Technologies for Meetings There are many options for virtual meetings with teams. For one-on-one meetings or small teams, video chatting through applications such as Skype, FaceTime, or Google+ allows for quick, free meetings. Skype and FaceTime

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are specifically designed for one-on-one conversations, but allow additional people to join. Google+, on the other hand, is designed for multiple people to connect at the same time. It actively manages the video streams to show the person who is currently talking. For larger meetings that include formal presentations or require more stability, many companies use GoToMeeting.com, which provides videoconferencing services for a monthly fee. Participants in the meetings can simply log on to the website and be connected to the video and audio of the meeting and gain access to presentation slides and other materials. Other companies use streaming web video combined with social networking, e-mail, or online comment forms to create a collaborative setting for a meeting.

Technologies for Scheduling and Assignments Productive meetings include creating schedules and making assignments for team members. Keeping track of these schedules and assignments can be complicated, particularly if the members of the team are in different locations or in different time zones. Simple online calendars, such as Google’s calendar, can manage deadlines and simple tasks. More complex assignments may require something such as Microsoft Outlook, which can organize calendars, assignments, communications, and documents. Other applications also provide specialized project management tools. Producteev, for example, uses a web interface to create to-do lists, manage assignments and deadlines, coordinate tasks within assignments, and organize documents. Many additional applications and services can perform the same services.

Technologies for Collaboration Team members also need to collaborate on documents, presentations, and products. Google Docs uses a simple interface that allows team members to write, edit, and comment on the same document in real time. Newer versions of Microsoft Office offer similar tools for collaboration; team members can write, edit, and comment on shared Word, Excel, and PowerPoint documents. For presentation slides, Prezi and SlideRocket offer online tools to facilitate collaboration. DropBox, Microsoft SkyDrive, and Google Docs all offer online storage for teams to share documents and project files. Wikis also allow teams to share ideas and write collaboratively.

Collaborative Writing

LO 8-7

Whatever your career, it is likely that some of the documents you produce will be written with a team. Collaborative writing is often prompted by one of the following situations: ■

The task is too big or the time is too short for one person to do all the writing.

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No one person has all the knowledge required to do the writing.

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The stakes for the task are so high that the organization wants the best efforts of as many people as possible; no one person wants the sole responsibility for the success or failure of the document.

Collaborative writing can be done by two people or by a much larger group. The team can be democratic or run by a leader who makes decisions alone. The team may share or divide responsibility for each stage in the writing process.

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Teams commonly divide the work in several ways. One person might do the main writing, with others providing feedback. Another approach is to divide the whole project into smaller tasks and to assign each task to a different team member. This approach shares the workload more evenly but is harder to coordinate, although technology, such as wikis or Google Docs, helps. Sometimes team members write together simultaneously, discussing and responding to each other’s ideas. This approach helps consensus but is time-consuming. Research in collaborative writing suggests strategies that produce the best writing. As noted earlier, research has found that student teams that voiced disagreements as they analyzed, planned, and wrote a document produced significantly better documents than those that suppressed disagreement, going along with whatever was first proposed.23 A case study of two collaborative writing teams in a state agency found that the successful team distributed power in an egalitarian way, worked to soothe hurt feelings, and was careful to involve all team members. In terms of writing process, the successful team understood the task as a response to a rhetorical situation (with a specific audience, purpose, and situation), planned revisions as a team, saw supervisors’ comments as legitimate, and had a positive attitude toward revision.24

Planning the Work and the Document Collaborative writing is most successful when the team articulates its understanding of the document’s purposes, audiences, and contexts, and explicitly discusses the best way to achieve rhetorical goals. Businesses schedule formal planning sessions for large projects to set up a time line specifying intermediate and final due dates, meeting dates, who will attend each meeting, and who will do what. Putting the plan in writing reduces misunderstandings during the project. When you plan a collaborative writing project, ■

Make your analysis of the problem, audience, context, and purposes explicit so you know where you agree and where you disagree. It usually helps to put these in writing.

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Plan the organization, format, and style of the document before anyone begins to write to make it easier to blend sections written by different authors. Decide who is going to do what and when each piece of the project will be due.

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Consider your work styles and other commitments when making a time line. A writer working alone can stay up all night to finish a single-authored document. But members of a team need to work together to accommodate each other’s styles and to enable members to meet other commitments.

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Decide how you will give constructive feedback on each person’s work.

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Build some leeway into your deadlines. It’s harder for a team to finish a document when one person’s part is missing than it is for a single writer to finish the last section of a document on which he or she has done all the work.

All team members need to give input on important planning issues, especially to analysis and organization.

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Composing the Drafts When you draft a collaborative writing project, ■

Decide who will write what. Will one person write an entire draft? Will each team member be assigned a portion of the draft? Will the whole team write the draft together? Most writers find that composing alone is faster than composing in a group. However, composing together may reduce revision time later, since the group examines every choice as it is made. Even so, it is still generally faster to have individuals compose drafts.

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Decide how you will share drafts. Which technologies will you use so everyone can work on a draft? International teams particularly need to use electronic media to compose drafts.

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Carefully label and date drafts so everyone is working on the most current version. Make sure everyone knows the date of the latest draft.

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If the quality of writing is crucial, have the best writer(s) draft the document after everyone has gathered the necessary information.

Revising the Document Revising a collaborative document requires attention to content, organization, and style. The following guidelines can make the revision process more effective: ■

Evaluate the content and discuss possible revisions as a team. Brainstorm ways to improve each section so the person doing the revisions has some guidance.

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Evaluate the organization and discuss possible revisions as a team. Would a different organization make the message clearer?

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Recognize that different people favor different writing styles. If the style satisfies the demands of standard English and the conventions of business writing, accept it even if you wouldn’t say it that way.

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When the team is satisfied with the content of the document, one person— probably the best writer—should make any changes necessary to make the writing style consistent throughout.

Editing and Proofreading the Document Since writers’ mastery of standard English varies, a team report needs careful editing and proofreading. ■

Have at least one person check the whole document for correctness in grammar, mechanics, and spelling and for consistency in the way that format elements (particularly headings), names, and numbers are handled.

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Run the document through a spell checker.

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Even if you use a computerized spell checker, at least one human being should proofread the document too.

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Blue Man Group Work The Blue Man Group started in 1988 as a trio of performance artists doing street theater in New York City. Today, Blue Man Group is an entertainment franchise with about 70 Blue Men employed in nine theater shows plus touring concerts. They fill stadiums, they’ve founded their own creativity-based early childhood program, and they’ve been nominated for a Grammy. How did they do it? Teamwork. As Matt Goldman, one of the founding Blue Men, notes, “Three is the smallest unit where you can have an outsider.” The Blue Man Group uses consensus to create music, original instruments, and shows—and to run the business. They discuss decisions until they reach a point where all three members can agree. That lets each member bring his or her own unique contributions to the process, while ensuring that the whole team is satisfied with the result. “It takes longer, but we find if you keep talking things through, you reach a better choice.” Working as part of a team is one of the most challenging communication tasks you can face in a professional setting. But it can be rewarding. Chris Wink, another of the founding Blue Men, says, “If you can be a good collaborator, it’s like a superpower because you can connect your gifts with that of someone else.” As a team member, you’ll use your audience analysis skills to build goodwill with people inside and outside of your team, and your organizational skills to keep both your communication and your work moving smoothly. Sources: Liz Welch, “How We Did It: The Blue Man Group, from Downtown Performance Art to Global Entertainment Empire,” Inc., August 2008, 110–12; and Dinah Eng, “The Color Blue Just Felt Right,” Fortune, October 8, 2012, 41.

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Like any member of the writing team, those handling the editing tasks need to consider how they express their ideas. In many situations, the editor plays the role of diplomat, careful to suggest changes in ways that do not seem to call the writer’s abilities into question. Describing the reason for a change is typically more helpful than stating an opinion. Writers are more likely to allow editing of their prose if they know a sentence has a dangling modifier, or a paragraph needs work on parallel structure. Using words like could and should to modify a direction can add a tone of politeness.

Making the Team Process Work

The Blue Man Group uses consensus to create shows and run the business. See “Blue Man Group Work” sidebar on this page.

The information in this chapter can help your team interact effectively, run meetings efficiently, and deal with conflict constructively. The following suggestions apply specifically to writing teams: ■

Give yourselves plenty of time to discuss problems and find solutions. Writing a team report may require hours of discussion time in addition to the time individuals spend doing research and writing drafts.

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Take the time to get to know team members and to build team loyalty. Team members will work harder and the final document will be better if the team is important to members.

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Be a responsible team member. Produce your drafts on time.

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Be aware that people have different ways of expressing themselves in writing.

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Because talking is “looser” than writing, people on a team can think they agree when they don’t. Don’t assume that because the discussion went smoothly, a draft written by one person will necessarily be acceptable.

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Use collaborative technologies wisely to help the writing process rather than hinder it.

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Allow more time at all stages of the writing process than you would if you were writing the document by yourself.

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Summary by Learning Objectives Different kinds of productive and nonproductive roles in teams. Effective teams balance informational, interpersonal, and procedural team roles. LO 8-1

Group decision-making strategies. Groupthink is the tendency for groups to put such a high premium on agreement that they directly or indirectly punish dissent. The best correctives to groupthink are to consciously search for additional alternatives, to test one’s assumptions against those of a range of other people, and to protect the right of each person in the group to disagree. LO 8-2

Characteristics of successful teams. Successful teams set clear deadlines, schedule frequent meetings, deal directly with conflict, have an inclusive decision-making style, and have a higher proportion of members who worked actively on the project. LO 8-3

Techniques for resolving conflict. To resolve conflicts, first make sure the people involved really disagree. Next, check to see that everyone’s information is correct. Discover the needs each person is trying to meet. The presenting problem that surfaces as the subject of dissension may or may not be the real problem. Search for alternatives. Repair negative feelings. Constructive ways to respond to criticism include paraphrasing, checking for feelings, checking inferences, and buying time with limited agreement. Use statements about your own feelings to own the problem and avoid attacking the

LO 8-4 ■

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audience. In conflict, I statements are good you-attitude! Techniques for making meetings effective. To make meetings more effective, ■ State the purpose of the meeting at the beginning. ■ Distribute an agenda that indicates whether each item is for information, discussion, or action, and how long each is expected to take. ■ Allow enough time to discuss controversial issues. ■ Pay attention to people and process as well as to the task at hand. ■ If you don’t take formal votes, summarize the group’s consensus after each point. At the end of the meeting, summarize all decisions and remind the group who is responsible for implementing or following up on each item. LO 8-5

Technologies to use in teamwork. Modern technologies allow for team collaboration through meetings, scheduling, and creating documents and presentations. LO 8-6

Techniques for collaborative writing. Collaborative writing means working with other writers to produce a single document. Writers producing a joint document need to pay attention not only to the basic steps in the writing process but also to the processes of team formation and conflict resolution. They also need to allow more time than they would for single-authored documents. LO 8-7

Continuing Case The All-Weather Case, set in an HR department in a manufacturing company, extends through all 19 chapters and is available at www.mhhe.com/locker11e. The portion for this chapter asks students to suggest how two team leaders could be more effective.

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Exercises and Cases 8.1

Reviewing the Chapter

1. What are 10 kinds of productive roles in teams? Which roles do you prefer to play? (LO 8-1) 2. What are five kinds of nonproductive roles in teams? (LO 8-1) 3. What are some team decision-making strategies? (LO 8-2) 4. Name five characteristics of successful teams. (LO 8-3) 5. What is groupthink? Have you ever experienced it? (LO 8-3) 6. What are some techniques for resolving conflict? (LO 8-4)

8.2

Brainstorming Ways to Resolve Conflicts

Suggest one or more ways that each of the following teams could deal with the conflict(s) it faces. 1. Mike and Takashi both find writing hard. Elise has been getting better grades than either of them, so they offer to do all the research if she’ll organize the document and write, revise, edit, and proofread it. Elise thinks that this method would leave her doing a disproportionate share of the work. Moreover, scheduling the work would be difficult, since she wouldn’t know how good their research was until the last minute. 2. Because of their class and work schedules, Lars and Andrea want to hold team meetings from 8 to 10 p.m., working later if need be. But Juan’s wife works the evening shift, and he needs to be home with his children, two of whom have to be in bed before 8. He wants to meet from 8 to 10 a.m., but the others don’t want to meet that early. 3. Lynn wants to divide the work equally, with firm due dates. Marcia is trying to get into medical

8.3

7. What are some techniques for responding to criticism? (LO 8-4) 8. What are some techniques for making meetings effective? (LO 8-5) 9. What are some technology tools for collaboration? (LO 8-6) 10. What are some techniques for collaborative writing? (LO 8-7) 11. Have you ever been part of a team that wrote a document as a whole group rather than assigning out pieces? If so, how did the process work for your team? (LO 8-7)

school. She says she’d rather do the lion’s share of the work so that she knows it’s good. 4. Jessie’s father is terminally ill. This team isn’t very important in terms of what’s going on in her life, and she knows she may have to miss some team meetings. 5. Sherry is aware that she is the person on her team who always points out the logical flaws in arguments: she’s the one who reminds the team members that they haven’t done all the parts of the assignment. She doesn’t want her team to turn in a flawed product, but she wonders whether the other team members see her as too critical. 6. Jim’s team missed several questions on the team quiz. Talking to Tae-Suk after class, Jim learns that Tae-Suk knew all the answers. “Why didn’t you say anything?” Jim asks angrily. Tae-Suk responds quietly, “Todd said that he knew the answers. I did not want to argue with him. We have to work together, and I do not want anyone to lose face.”

Comparing Meeting Minutes

Have two or more people record the minutes of each class or team meeting for a week. Compare the accounts of the same meeting. ■ To what extent do they agree on what happened? ■ Does one contain information missing in other accounts? ■ Do any accounts disagree on a specific fact? ■ How do you account for the differences you find?

As your instructor directs, a. Discuss your findings with your team. b. Share your team findings orally with the class. c. Describe and analyze your findings in an e-mail to your instructor.

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8.4

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List your development goals. Outline steps you need to take to move toward your goals. Detail the knowledge and experience you can bring to bear on your project.

8.5

235

Preparing a Contribution Scorecard

“Forming Team Expectations,” the sidebar on page 215, discussed using a contribution scorecard to help set and measure expectations for team work. With a small group, prepare a sample contribution scorecard using the following steps: ■

Working and Writing in Teams

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List ways to leverage the range of your knowledge and experience. With your group, discuss the following questions:

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How does a contribution scorecard set expectations for your team? Do you think it will help your team in your day-today tasks? How? How could a contribution scorecard help you measure your performance as a team?

Recommending a Policy on Student Entrepreneurs

Assume that your small team comprises the officers in student government on your campus. You receive this e-mail from the Dean of Students:

As you know, campus policy says that no student may use campus resources to conduct business-related activities. Students can’t conduct business out of dorm rooms or use university e-mail addresses for business. They can’t post business web pages on the university server. On the other hand, a survey conducted by the Kauffman Center for Entrepreneurial Leadership showed that 7 out of 10 teens want to become entrepreneurs. Should campus policy be changed to allow students to use dorm rooms and university e-mail addresses for business? (And then what happens when roommates complain and our network can’t carry the increased e-mail traffic?) Please recommend what support (if any) should be given to student entrepreneurs.

Your team will be writing a report recommending what (if anything) your campus should do for student entrepreneurs and supporting your recommendation. Hints: ■

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Does your campus offer other support for entrepreneurs (courses, a business plan competition, a start-up incubator)? What should be added or expanded? Is it realistic to ask alumni for money to fund student start-ups? Are campus dorms, e-mail, phone, and delivery services funded by tax dollars? If your school is a

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public institution, do state or local laws limit business use? You need to Send e-mail messages to team members describing your initial point of view on the issue and discussing the various options. Help your team write the report. Write an e-mail to your instructor telling how satisfied you are with • The decision your team reached. • The process you used to reach it. • The document your team produced.

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The Communication Process

Recommending a Fair Way to Assign Work around the Holidays

Assume your team comprises a hospital’s LaborManagement Committee. This e-mail arrives from the hospital administrator: Subject: Allocating Holiday Hours It’s that time of year again, and we’re starting to get requests for time off from every department. We have shifts where every physician and half the nurses want time off. Don’t these people realize that we can’t close down over a holiday? And what’s worse is that some of the shift leads are giving preferential treatment to their friends. The head of the nurses’ union has already started complaining to me. We need a comprehensive, hospital-wide procedure for assigning holiday vacation time that doesn’t make us shut down wards. It needs to be flexible, because people like to take a week off around Christmas. But we have to set limits: no more than one-quarter of the staff can take time off at any one time. And those nurses like to swap shifts with each other to arrange their days off into larger blocks, so we need to cover that too. Write up a policy to keep these people in line. Be sure to throw in the safety concerns and regulatory stuff.

Your team will be performing these tasks: a. Write a team response recommending a new policy and supporting your recommendations. Include two transmittal e-mails: one to the hospital administrator, and one to the hospital’s medical and nursing staff. Take care to address the two audiences’ different needs and expectations with good you-attitude and positive emphasis. b. Create a one-page notice describing your new policy. This notice should be suitable for posting at the duty desk for each ward—in full view of both your employees and your customers (the patients). Create an effective visual design that emphasizes and organizes the text.

8.7

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You personally need to Send e-mail messages to team members describing your initial point of view on the issue and discussing the various options. Help your team write the documents. Write an e-mail to your instructor telling how satisfied you are with • The decisions your team reached. • The process you used to reach them. • The documents your team produced.

Recommending a Dress Policy

Assume your small team comprises your organization’s Labor-Management Committee. This e-mail arrives from the CEO: In the last 10 years, we became increasingly casual. But changed circumstances seem to call for more formality. Is it time to reinstate a dress policy? If so, what should it be?

Your team will be writing a response recommending the appropriate dress for employees and supporting your recommendation.

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Hint: Agree on an office, factory, store, or other workplace to use for this problem.

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You personally need to Send e-mail messages to team members describing your initial point of view on the issue and discussing the various options. Help your team write the response.

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Working and Writing in Teams

Write an e-mail to your instructor telling how satisfied you are with • The decision your team reached.

8.8

The process you used to reach it. The document your team produced.

Responding to Customer Complaints

Assume your small team comprises the Social Networking Committee at the headquarters of a chain of restaurants. After the managers of one of the restaurants appear on a reality television show, your team begins to receive negative online reviews on sites such as Yelp and Facebook. The negative reviews focus on the character and behavior of the restaurant managers. The CEO of the company asks your team to write a response to the criticisms to post online. He wants you to focus on the company’s values and service. Your team will be writing a group response to online criticisms. You will need to agree on how best to present your company, how to write about the managers who appeared on the TV show, and how to respond to the negative reviews.

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• •

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■

■ ■

You personally need to Send e-mail messages to team members describing your initial point of view on the issue and discussing the various options. Help your team write the response. Write an e-mail to your instructor telling how satisfied you are with • The decision your team reached. • The process you used to reach it. • The document your team produced.

Answering an Ethics Question

Assume your team comprises your organization’s Ethics Committee. You receive the following anonymous note: People are routinely using the company letterhead to write letters to members of Congress, senators, and even the president stating their positions on various issues. Making their opinions known is of course their right, but doing so on letterhead stationery implies that they are speaking for the company, which they are not. I think that the use of letterhead for anything other than official company business should be prohibited.

Your team will be determining the best solution to the problem and then communicating it in a message to all employees. You personally need to ■ Send e-mail messages to team members describing your initial point of view on the issue and discussing the various options. ■ Help your team write the message.

8.10

■

Write an e-mail to your instructor telling how satisfied you are with • The decision your team reached. • The process you used to reach it. • The document your team produced.

Interviewing Workers about Collaborating

Interview someone who works in an organization about his or her on-the-job collaboration activities. Possible questions to ask include the following: ■ How often do you work on collaborative projects? ■ Do your collaborative projects always include people who are in your immediate office? How often do you collaborate with people via technology? ■ How do you begin collaborative projects? What are the first steps you take when working with others?

■ ■ ■ ■ ■

How do you handle disagreements? What do you do when someone isn’t doing his/her share of the work on a collaborative project? What do you do to see every person meets team deadlines? How do you handle unexpected problems? Illness? Injury? Broken equipment? What advice can you give about effectively collaborating on projects?

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As your instructor directs, a. Share your information with a small team of students in your class. b. Present your findings orally to the class.

8.11

Networking for Team Formation

In this exercise, you are going to participate in a networking event, an abbreviated “talk and walk.” To prepare for the event, ■ Prepare business cards for yourself, using a computer application of your choice. ■ Prepare a list of people in your class whom you would like to meet (give visual descriptions if you do not know their names). ■ Prepare a list of questions you would like to have answered. ■ Collect materials to use for taking notes during the event. During the event, you will have six three-minute sessions to talk with a fellow student and exchange business cards. Remember, the other person also has questions he

8.12

c. Present your findings in an e-mail to your instructor. d. Join with other students to present your findings in a team report.

or she wants answered. Your instructor will time the sessions and tell you when to change people. After the event, analyze what you have learned. Here are some questions to get you started: ■ Who was the most interesting? Why? ■ Whom did you like the most? Why? ■ Whom would you most like to have on a team in this class? Why? ■ Did you meet anyone you didn’t want to work with? Explain. ■ What lessons did you learn about networking? Write an e-mail to your teacher containing your analysis.

Writing a Team Action Plan

Before you begin working on a team project, develop a team action plan to establish a framework that will hold your team members accountable for their work. After reading the project assignment sheet and meeting your team, decide upon answers for the following questions: ■ Will you have a team leader? If so, who? Why is that person qualified to be the team leader? What are that person’s responsibilities? How will you proceed if the team leader is unable to meet those responsibilities? ■ What will be each team member’s role? What is each team member’s qualification for that role? ■ How are you dividing your work? Why did you choose to divide the work the way you did? ■ What are the tasks your team needs to accomplish? For each task in the assignment, identify a concrete deliverable (What do you need to hand in?), a concrete measure for success (How will your team decide if you completed that task well?), and a work schedule (When does each task need to be done?) ■ How will you resolve disagreements that may arise while working on the project? How will your team make decisions: By majority? By consensus? ■ When and where will you hold meetings? Decide whether you can hold meetings if all team members are not present. How will you inform team members

of what occurred at meetings if they were not present? ■ Define what “absence” means for your team. Are all absences equal? How should a team member who’s going to be absent let the team know? How far in advance does your team need to know about an absence? How many absences from one team member will be too many? What are the consequences of too many absences? ■ Create a policy dealing with people who don’t attend class during your preparation days or during your presentation; people who don’t attend meetings outside class; people who miss deadlines, don’t do their work at all or in a timely manner, or who consistently turn in incomplete or poor-quality work. What penalties will you apply? (Some ideas: you might consider loss of points, grade reductions, failure, a team firing, or a team intervention.) ■ Will you report problem members to your instructor? If so, at what point? What role do you want your instructor to have in dealing with problem members? After your team determines and agrees on an action plan, the team’s secretary should send your answers in an e-mail to your instructor, who will keep the document on file in case a problem arises.

Chapter 8

8.13

As your instructor directs, your minutes should include: ■ ■ ■ ■

Name of the team holding the meeting. Members who were present. Members who were absent. Place, time, and date of meeting. Work accomplished, and who did it, during the meeting.

8.14

■

Actions that need to be completed, the person responsible, and the due date. ■ Decisions made during the meeting. ■ New issues raised at the meeting but not resolved should be recorded for future meetings. ■ Signature of acting secretary. Remember to keep your minutes brief and to the point. When the minutes are complete, e-mail them to your fellow team members and cc: them to your instructor.

Keeping a Journal about a Team

As you work on a team, keep a journal after each team meeting.

■

Who did what? What roles did you play in the meeting? ■ What decisions were made? How were they made? ■ What conflicts arose? How were they handled? ■ What strategies could you use to make the next meeting go smoothly? ■ Record one observation about each team member. At the end of the project, analyze your journals. In an e-mail to your instructor, discuss ■ Patterns you see. ■ Roles of each team member, including yourself.

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Writing Team Meeting Minutes

As you work in a collaborative team setting, designate a different member to take minutes for each meeting. ■

Working and Writing in Teams

■

■ ■ ■

Decision making in your team. Conflict resolution in your team. Strengths of your team. Areas where your team could improve. Strengths of the deliverables. Areas where the deliverables could be improved. Changes you would make in the team and deliverables if you had the project to do over.

Analyzing the Dynamics of a Team

Analyze the dynamics of a task team of which you were a member. Answer the following questions: 1. Who was the team’s leader? How did the leader emerge? Were there any changes in or challenges to the original leader? 2. Describe the contribution each member made to the team and the roles each person played. 3. Did any members of the team officially or unofficially drop out? Did anyone join after the team had begun working? How did you deal with the loss or addition of a team member, both in terms of getting the work done and in terms of helping people work together? 4. What planning did your team do at the start of the project? Did you stick to the plan or revise it? How did the team decide that revision was necessary? 5. How did your team make decisions? Did you vote? Reach decisions by consensus? 6. What problems or conflicts arose? Did the team deal with them openly? To what extent did they interfere with the team’s task? 7. Evaluate your team both in terms of its task and in terms of the satisfaction members felt. How did this team compare with other task teams you’ve been part of? What made it better or worse?

8. What were the strengths of the team? Weaknesses? 9. How did the team’s strengths and weaknesses impact the quality of the work produced? 10. If you had the project to do over again, what would you do differently? As you answer the questions, ■ ■

■

Be honest. You won’t lose points for reporting that your team had problems or did something “wrong.” Show your knowledge of good team dynamics. That is, if your team did something wrong, show that you know what should have been done. Similarly, if your team worked well, show that you know why it worked well. Be specific. Give examples or anecdotes to support your claims.

As your instructor directs, a. Discuss your answers with the other team members. b. Present your findings in an individual e-mail to your instructor. c. Join with the other team members to write a collaborative e-mail to your instructor.

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The Communication Process

Dealing with a “Saboteur”

It’s often said that “there’s no I in team” because on the best teams, everyone works together for the good of the group. What happens when you encounter a team member who believes that “there’s a me in team” and ignores or undermines the team’s success in order to achieve personal goals? Consider this scenario. You’re on a team of four students, and you’ve all been working for the past month to complete a major class project. When you were planning your project, one team member—let’s say Lee—argued with your team’s decisions, but agreed to go along with the majority. Lee contributed the bare minimum to your team’s work, sat silently during meetings, and when you asked for help overcoming a problem with the project, Lee responded with a shrug, “I told you at the start that I thought this was a bad idea. I guess we’re all going to get a failing grade.” Now you’re at your last team meeting before the assignment is due. Lee reveals a decision to quit the team and turn in a separate project. Lee doesn’t want a grade that “will suffer from all your ‘second-rate’ efforts,” and

tells you that s/he already complained to your instructor about the rest of you. As your instructor directs, a. Write an e-mail to your instructor in which you explain your individual response to this scenario. What would you do? How should your team proceed? b. Work as a group to establish a working policy that might address this scenario before it happens. ■

■

■ ■

What policies would you need to protect the group from individual members who are out for themselves? What policies would you need to protect team members from having the team take advantage of them? What is your instructor’s role in your team’s policy? How would your team evaluate each member’s contributions fairly?

Notes 1. “Top 10 Skills for Job Candidates,” NACE, April 3, 2013, http://www.naceweb.org/Publications/Spotlight_ Online/2013/0403/Top_10_Skills_for_Job_Candidates .aspx. 2. Kevin S. Groves, “Leader Emotional Expressivity, Visionary Leadership, and Organizational Change,” Leadership Organizational Development Journal 27, no. 7 (2006): 566–83; and Ajay Mehra et al., “Distributed Leadership in Teams: The Network of Leadership Perceptions and Team Performance,” The Leadership Quarterly 17, no. 3 (2006): 232–45. 3. “Why Hierarchies Are Good for Productivity (And Too Much Testosterone Is Not),” Inc., September 2012, 26. 4. Edward P. Lazear, Kathryn L. Shaw, and Christopher T. Stanton, “The Value of Bosses,” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 18317, August 2012. 5. Jeswald W. Salacuse, The Global Negotiator: Making, Managing, and Mending Deals around the World in the Twenty-First Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 92. 6. Bob Frisch, “When Teams Can’t Decide,” Harvard Business Review 86, no. 11 (2008): 121–26. 7. Sue Shellenbarger, “Work & Family Mailbox,” Wall Street Journal, February 9, 2011, D3. 8. Alex “Sandy” Pentland, “The New Science of Building Great Teams,” Harvard Business Review 90, no. 4 (2012): 60. 9. Kimberly Merriman, “Low-Trust Teams Prefer Individualized Pay,” Harvard Business Review 86, no. 11 (2008): 32. 10. Sari Lindblom-Ylanne, Heikki Pihlajamaki, and Toomas Kotkas, “What Makes a Student Group Successful? Student–Student and Student–Teacher Interaction in a Problem-Based Learning Environment,” Learning Environments Research 6, no. 1 (2003): 59–76. 11. Sue Dyer, “The Root Causes of Poor Communication,” Cost Engineering 48, no. 6 (2006): 8–10.

12. Rebecca E. Burnett, “Conflict in Collaborative DecisionMaking,” in Professional Communication: The Social Perspective, ed. Nancy Roundy Blyler and Charlotte Thralls (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1993), 144–62; and Rebecca E. Burnett, “Productive and Unproductive Conflict in Collaboration,” in Making Thinking Visible: Writing, Collaborative Planning, and Classroom Inquiry, ed. Linda Flower et al. (Urbana, IL: NCTE, 1994), 239–44. 13. Solomon F. Asch, “Opinions and Social Pressure,” Scientific American 193, no. 5 (1955): 31–35. For a review of literature on groupthink, see Marc D. Street, “Groupthink: An Examination of Theoretical Issues, Implications, and Future Research Suggestions,” Small Group Research 28, no. 1 (1997): 72–93. 14. Jared Diamond, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (New York: Penguin Books, 2005), 439. 15. Francesca Bariela-Chiappini et al., “Five Perspectives on Intercultural Business Communication,” Business Communication Quarterly 66, no. 3 (2003): 73–96. 16. Ursula Hess and Pierre Philippot, Group Dynamics and Emotional Expression (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007). 17. Kristina B. Dahlin, Laurie R. Weingart, and Pamela J. Hinds, “Team Diversity and Information Use,” Academy of Management Journal 68, no. 6 (2005): 1107–23; Susannah B. F. Paletz et al., “Ethnic Composition and Its Differential Impact on Group Processes in Diverse Teams,” Small Group Research 35, no. 2 (2004): 128–57; and Leisa D. Sargent and Christina Sue-Chan, “Does Diversity Affect Efficacy? The Intervening Role of Cohesion and Task Interdependence,” Small Group Research 32, no. 4 (2001): 426–50. 18. Anita Woolley and Thomas Malone, “What Makes a Team Smarter? More Women,” Harvard Business Review 89, no. 6 (2011): 32.

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19. Salacuse, The Global Negotiator, 96–97. 20. Jeanne Brett, Kristin Behfar, and Mary C. Kern, “Managing Multicultural Teams,” Harvard Business Review 84, no. 11 (2006): 84–91. 21. John E. Tropman, Making Meetings Work, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003), 28. 22. Mark Goulston and John Ullmen, “How to Really Understand Someone Else’s Point of View,” HBR Blog Network, April 22, 2013, http://blogs.hbr.org/cs/2013/04/how_ to_really_understand_someo.html.

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23. Burnett, “Productive and Unproductive Conflict in Collaboration.” 24. Kitty O. Locker, “What Makes a Collaborative Writing Team Successful? A Case Study of Lawyers and Social Service Workers in a State Agency,” in New Visions in Collaborative Writing, ed. Janis Forman (Portsmouth, NJ: Boynton, 1991), 37–52.

Sharing Informative and Positive Messages with Appropriate Technology

Chapter Outline Purposes of Informative and Positive Messages Communication Hardware ■

Smartphones Portable Media Players ■ Tablets ■ Videoconferences ■

Information Overload Using Common Media ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Face-to-Face Contacts Phone Calls Instant Messaging and Text Messaging Wikis Social Media E-mails, Letters, and Memos

Organizing Informative and Positive Messages Subject Lines for Informative and Positive Messages ■ ■

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Making Subject Lines Specific Making Subject Lines Concise

■

Making Subject Lines Appropriate for the Pattern of Organization ■ Pointers for E-mail Subject Lines

Managing the Information in Your Messages Using Benefits in Informative and Positive Messages Ending Informative and Positive Messages Story in Informative Messages Humor in Informative Messages Varieties of Informative and Positive Messages ■

Transmittals Summaries ■ Thank-You and Positive Feedback Notes ■ Positive Responses to Complaints ■

Solving a Sample Problem ■

Problem Analysis of the Problem ■ Discussion of the Sample Solutions ■

Summary by Learning Objectives

NEWSWORTHY COMMUNICATION Providing Bedside Information

elos Cosgrove, CEO of the Cleveland Clinic, realized he had a problem. Although the clinic was recognized by U.S. News & World Report for being one of the top five hospitals in the country, its patients weren’t satisfied. In particular, patients wanted better communication from doctors, nurses, and staff throughout their hospital stays. To address this issue, the Cleveland Clinic changed how it provided

patients with information. Now, before coming in for a procedure, patients receive a packet telling them what to expect throughout their stay. While in the hospital, patients receive from doctors, nurses, and staff consistent information about efforts at care. And after the procedure, the Cleveland Clinic has improved how patients receive information about after care and billing. The results of this better communication have been striking. In

overall patient satisfaction, the Cleveland Clinic has jumped from the 55th percentile to the 92nd percentile in just five years. In other areas, such as ratings of communication from doctors, nurses, and staff, the clinic has improved by more than 50 percentile points. The excellence in patient care at the Cleveland Clinic has remained constant. Improved communication of informative and positive messages has made all the difference.

Source: James I. Merlino and Ananth Raman, “Health Care’s Service Fanatics,” Harvard Business Review 91, no. 5 (2013): 108–16.

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Learning Objectives

Information about Your Medicine Informing people about their medicines is not so simple. Hospitals annually treat 1.9 million people for medication problems; emergency rooms treat an additional 838,000. These figures are up 52% from 2004. Part of the problem results from the growing complexity of medication regimes, particularly for the elderly and those with multiple, chronic conditions. These regimes are becoming so complex that even well-educated patients make mistakes. Another group with special problems consists of patients with low literacy. In one study, only 34% of such patients could accurately demonstrate the precise number of pills they were to take, even after correctly repeating “take two twice a day.” These patients are not alone. Another study showed that more than half of adults misunderstood at least one of the common prescription warnings. Experts are recommending language changes on medicine labels: “use only on your skin” to replace “for external use only,” or “limit your time in the sun” to replace “avoid prolonged or excessive exposure to direct sunlight.” They are also recommending new drug information sheets. Adapted from Laura Landro, “‘Use Only as Directed’ Isn’t Easy,” Wall Street Journal, April 26, 2011, D1.

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After studying this chapter, you will know LO 9-1

What the purposes of informative and positive messages are.

LO 9-2

What kinds of newer communication hardware are entering offices.

LO 9-3

When and how to use common business media effectively.

LO 9-4

How to organize informative and positive messages.

LO 9-5

How to compose some of the common varieties of informative and positive messages.

usiness messages must meet the needs of the sender (and the sender’s organization), be sensitive to the audience, and accurately reflect the topic being discussed. Informative and positive messages are the breadand-butter messages in organizations. When we need to convey information to which the receiver’s basic reaction will be neutral, the message is informative. If we convey information to which the receiver’s reaction will be positive, the message is a positive or good news message. Neither message immediately asks the receiver to do anything. You usually do want to build positive attitudes toward the information you are presenting, so in that sense, even an informative message has a persuasive element. Chapter 10 will discuss messages where the receiver will respond negatively; Chapter 11 will discuss messages where you want the receiver to change beliefs or behavior. Informative and positive messages include acceptances; positive answers to requests; information about meetings, procedures, products, services, or options; announcements of policy changes that are neutral or positive; and changes that are to the receiver’s advantage.

Purposes of Informative and Positive Messages LO 9-1 Even a simple informative or good-news message usually has several purposes: Primary purposes To give information or good news to the receiver or to reassure the receiver. To have the receiver view the information positively. Secondary purposes To build a good image of the sender. To build a good image of the sender’s organization. To cement a good relationship between the sender and the receiver. To de-emphasize any negative elements. To reduce or eliminate future messages on the same subject. Informative and positive messages are not necessarily short. Instead, the length of a message depends on your purposes, the audience’s needs, and the complexity of the situation. In addition to these concerns, you also have to ensure you are communicating with appropriate tools and media.

Chapter 9

Sharing Informative and Positive Messages with Appropriate Technology

Communication Hardware

LO 9-2

Businesses are quick to adopt new forms of technology that can enhance the experience of workers and improve the bottom line. New software programs and devices continually enter the market to help businesses. However, acquiring new technology and helping workers master it entail an enormous capital investment. Learning to use new-generation software and improved hardware takes time and may be especially frustrating for people who were perfectly happy with old technology. Some of the most popular workplace tools that improve productivity are smartphones, portable media players, tablets, and videoconferences.

Smartphones Smartphones, such as Apple’s iPhone, Windows Phone, or any in the Android lineup, allow users to send and receive e-mail, access websites, conduct word processing, learn their next tasks, update a job’s status, check order or inventory statuses, complete a time sheet, and make phone calls. Many of these devices have touch screens with full QWERTY keyboards. These devices can also receive streaming video and audio. Some smartphones even have add-on devices that allow businesses to perform credit card transactions directly from the phones. Every day more applications become available for these smartphones, which can enhance productivity. With the full functionality of these devices, employees can be connected to their work 24/7. However, this does not mean they should be. Be considerate and try to limit business calls, e-mails, and text messages to business hours. Some restaurants are even offering discounts to customers if they check their phones with receptionists and dine without electronic disruptions.1

Technology plays a large role in the changing face of business communication. Conference rooms are frequently equipped with laptops, projectors, and videoconferencing equipment, making it possible for people to have meetings across continents and time zones.

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Portable Media Players Portable media players (such as iPods and MP3 players) feature the ability to receive streaming video and audio. Some organizations give employees these devices pre-loaded with recordings of meetings, new product information, or general announcements. These devices help keep employees connected, even when they’re not in the office.

Tablets Tablets (such as Apple’s iPad, Motorola’s Xoom, or Samsung’s Galaxy Tab) offer many of the smartphone features mentioned above, without the ability to place calls. Their advantage is the size, usually ranging from 7 to 10 inches, which makes viewing websites, watching instructional videos, or typing e-mails much easier on the eye than small phone screens do. As with portable media players, some organizations give employees these devices loaded with workplace information or applications to improve productivity. While some tablets need WiFi to keep employees online, many versions offer connections through cellular networks.

Videoconferences With rising travel costs, many businesses are seeking alternatives to traditional face-to-face meetings. One solution is videoconferences, which allow two or more parties to communicate and hold meetings with full audio and visual capabilities. They can occur across different time zones or between different nations instantaneously. As an added benefit, meetings never have to be delayed or postponed because of late flights or weather problems. One type of videoconferencing is telepresence, which uses high-end 50-inch plasma screens and broadcast-quality cameras to create virtual meetings that are almost lifelike. PepsiCo, Bank of America, and Procter & Gamble are just some of the companies that have adopted this technology. Banks are using telepresence to help their top advisers counsel clients face-to-face in multiple locations. These state-of-the-art telepresence rooms can be pricey, costing up to $300,000. Some of the cost is associated with the equipment necessary to create a room, but most of the cost comes from the large amounts of bandwidth required for the conferencing. Projected revenue for telepresence services will reach $2.3 billion by 2015.2 Lower-cost alternatives for videoconferencing exist as well. Services such as Skype, Apple’s FaceTime, or GoToMeeting allow employees to connect and collaborate remotely with web cameras that are standard on many newer laptops or tablets. Cisco and Logitech have also introduced systems that require high-definition TVs and a broadband connection for videoconferencing in the comfort of your home.

Information Overload One of the realities of communication today is information overload—having more information than one can process, understand, or act upon. Technology enables other people to bombard us with junk mail, sales calls, advertisements, and spam. Spam clutters computer mailboxes—or leads to filters that stop some needed e-mail. Spam also means that many people do not open e-mail if they do not recognize the sender or the topic. Individual messages are also getting more complex. Credit card contracts were typically about 400 words in 1980; now many are 20,000 words.

Chapter 9

Sharing Informative and Positive Messages with Appropriate Technology

Information hidden in fine print costs landline phone customers $2 billion annually, according to the Federal Communications Commission.3 Basex, a knowledge economy research and advisory company, surveyed knowledge workers and found that more than 50% of them felt that the amount of information coming to them daily was detrimental to accomplishing their work. In fact, 94% of them reported that at some point they were overwhelmed by information to the point of incapacity.4 A similar survey by Xerox of government and education workers found that 58% spent almost half their work time sorting, filing, or deleting information, and that this effort amounts to over $31 billion spent annually on managing information.5 On another level, even more routine communications are becoming overwhelming. With fast and cheap e-mails, text messages, instant messages, and tweets, plus the genuine belief in more transparent business procedures, businesses send more announcements of events, procedures, policies, services, and employee news. Departments send newsletters. Employees send announcements of and best wishes for births, birthdays, weddings, and promotions. Customers send comments about products, service, policies, and advertisements. Yet another factor in overload is inappropriate e-mails. This group includes jokes, personal information, and non-job-related e-mails, as well as e-mails that are unnecessarily long, trivial, and irrelevant. Too many people forward too many messages to uncaring receivers, and the “Reply to All” button has a notorious reputation. According to the Radicati Group, a technology market research firm, the average corporate e-mail user sends and receives 110 e-mails per day.6 Pingdom, an Internet usage monitoring company, calculates that 144 billion e-mail messages were sent daily in 2012, of which 68.8% were spam.7 With this flood of information, you need to protect your communication reputation.

WARNING: You do not want to be the person whose e-mails or voice mail messages are opened last because they take so long to get to the point, or even worse, the person whose messages are rarely opened at all because you send so many that aren’t important or necessary. One research study on e-mail overload found that length was not the problem: most e-mails in the study were four lines or less. Rather, the study found three factors that contributed to the perception of e-mail overload. The first, unstable requests, included requests that got refined in the process of e-mail correspondence and frequently morphed into requests for more work. The second, pressure to respond, included requests for information within hours. People in the study noted that they were never away from their e-mail, and that these requests could come any time. The third factor, delegation of tasks and shifting interactants, included tasks that were indirectly delegated (Could anyone get me the figures on X for the noon meeting?) or that recipients of the group e-mail then gave to their own subordinates.8 Some organizations and software applications are taking a stand to help employees deal with information overload. For instance, software add-ons for e-mail systems can now prioritize messages after analyzing which senders have the most importance. Some companies are declaring e-mail-free days, where employees are encouraged to meet face-to-face. Other companies are developing choice engines to help consumers more easily make difficult decisions. Two well-known travel choice engines are Expedia and Travelocity. Two newer choice engines are BrightScope, which analyzes and ranks 401(k) plans, and FirstFuel, which analyzes energy consumption data.9

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Doctors Communicating Medical schools and health care systems are giving doctors lessons in communicating well with patients. They are doing so to provide better health care and prevent lawsuits, 40% of which cite a lack of doctor– patient communication. These are some of the communication tips doctors are learning: ■

Explain to the patient what you are doing and why.

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Explain new technology systems so patients know what you are doing.

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Listen to patients; let them speak at least two minutes without interrupting.

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Ask for questions; answer them in clear, jargon-free prose.

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Use you-attitude to show empathy for the patient.

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Ask patients to repeat instructions that you have discussed with them to make sure they understand.

Adapted from Laura Landro, “The Talking Cure,” The Wall Street Journal, April 9, 2013, R1.

Basic Business Messages

Using Common Media

LO 9-3

In the office, most informative and positive communications are made through six channels: face-to-face contacts, phone calls, instant messages and text messaging, e-mails, letters, and memos. Many people have personal preferences that need to be recognized. They may keep up with their e-mail but avoid listening to voice mail messages; they may enjoy drop-in visitors but think instant messages are silly. Similarly, some channels seem better fitted for some situations than others.

Face-to-Face Contacts Some businesses are encouraging their employees to write fewer e-mails and visit each other’s desks more often. They believe such visits contribute to a friendlier, more collaborative work environment. Research with tracking sensors shows they are right; the most productive workers have the most face-to-face contacts.10 Visits are a good choice when ■

You know a colleague welcomes your visits.

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You are building a business relationship with a person.

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A real-time connection saves messages (e.g., setting a meeting agenda).

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Your business requires dialogue or negotiation.

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You need something immediately (like a signature).

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Discretion is vital and you do not want to leave a paper trail.

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The situation is complex enough that you want as many visual and aural cues as possible.

Use these tips for effective face-to-face contact: ■

Ensure the timing is convenient for the recipient.

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If you are discussing something complex, have appropriate documents in hand.

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Don’t usurp recipients’ space. Don’t put your papers on top of their desk or table without permission.

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Look for “time to go” signs. Some people have a limited tolerance for small talk, especially when they are hard at work on a task.

Tony Hsieh, CEO of Zappos, is a big fan of face-to-face contacts. He says, “The best things happen when people are running into each other.” To insure this happens, only one entrance is used at the Zappos office building.11 Other companies are scheduling group breaks to increase face-to-face contacts.

Phone Calls Phone calls provide fewer contextual cues than face-to-face visits, but more cues than electronic or paper messages. Phone calls are a good choice when ■

Tone of voice is important.

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A real-time connection saves multiple phone calls or e-mails (e.g., setting a meeting time).

Chapter 9

Sharing Informative and Positive Messages with Appropriate Technology

■

You need something immediately (like an OK).

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You do not want to leave a paper trail (but remember that phone records are easily obtained).

Use these tips for effective phone calls (also see Figure9.1): ■

Ensure the timing is convenient for the recipient; try to limit cell phone calls to business hours.

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Promptly return calls to your voice mail.

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Speak clearly, especially when giving your name and phone number (even more important when leaving your name and phone number on voice mail). Do not assume the recipient has a phone that records your number.

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Use an information hook: I am calling about....

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Keep the call short and cordial. If you need to leave a message, keep it brief: one or two sentences. Most people resent long voice mail messages.

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Repeat your phone number at the end of the call. Too often, people don’t write the number down at the beginning of the call.

■

Focus on the call; do not do other work. Most people can tell if you are reading e-mail or web pages while talking to them, and they get the message that their concern is not important to you.

Remember that unplanned phone calls are an interruption in a busy worker’s day. If that person works in an open office, as many do, the call will also interrupt other employees to some extent. For this reason, and also because of the increase in texting, voice mail messages are declining. Voice mail retrieval is declining even more rapidly, so even if you leave a message, you cannot be sure it will be heard.12

Instant Messaging and Text Messaging Formerly limited primarily to students, instant and text messaging are gaining acceptance in the business world, especially among people who work closely together. Instant messaging services, such as AOL Instant Messenger, Google Chat, and Yahoo Messenger, have quickly found their way into office settings. Because they are less intrusive than phone calls or visits, these messages are good for short messages on noncritical topics, such as running commentary,

Figure 9.1

Voice Mail Pet Peeves

• Callback numbers that are mumbled or given too quickly. • Messages longer than 30 seconds. • Messages that require serious note taking (when an e-mail would have been better). • Too much or too little information. • Demands to return the call without saying why. • Messages expecting an immediate response. • Angry messages.

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Flying and Texting Canada and parts of Europe have adopted a new system allowing co-pilots and air-traffic controllers to communicate by texting. The new system helps reduce communication errors that traditionally occur when using radios, mistakes such as misheard instructions and numbers. It saves valuable time when pilots or controllers no longer have to repeat information to make sure they are being understood. The technology is appreciated by both pilots and controllers alike. It allows controllers to spread out clusters of requests and provides more time to process pilot requests. Pilots appreciate the greater clarity. Adapted from Scott McCartney, “InFlight Texting Makes Pilot :-),” Wall Street Journal, May 16, 2013, D1

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questions, or clarifications on tasks you and your colleagues are working on simultaneously. And because they are generally answered immediately, they can decrease the time needed to solve an issue. Some organizations also believe that IMing fosters better collaborations among employees, particularly those who work from home. Researchers have found that people do not like to use IMs for larger tasks, more complex questions or instructions, or messages connected in any way with conflict.13 Audience preferences will be important, especially with abbreviations. Although even the Oxford English Dictionary lists LOL, BFF, IMHO, and OMG, some people will not recognize other abbreviations. And abbreviations such as OMG disturb some readers. In many organizations, text messages to all but close friends are expected to look professional. Not this:

that time should work. bring the donuts and coffee!!! i’m hungry! CU L8r

But this:

3 works for me, too. I’ll bring copies of the Wolford schedule. See you there.

Remember that, like e-mails, these messages can be saved, forwarded, and printed. They too leave a paper trail, and many businesses monitor them. Do not use them to send sensitive information, such as files or passwords, and always keep them professional in both mechanics and content. Florida Congressman Mark Foley lost his position for holding sexual and otherwise inappropriate IM conversations with underage pages.

Wikis With the popularity of websites such as Wikipedia, the business world has been quick to follow suit. Many organizations are using wikis, an online form of content knowledge management, in which users can post information or collaborate on projects. The access to these wikis is limited to employees of the particular organization using them, much like intranets. Employees can use wikis to ■

Bookmark and summarize web pages.

■

Upload drafts of working documents.

■

Create new entries about workplace practices.

Other employees can then quickly search for information using key words or modify existing uploaded documents. Wikis are a great way for corporations to create knowledge databases of workplace practices for their particular organization. In addition, wikis reduce the e-mailing of drafts between employees who are collaborating on a project. As an added bonus, every change made to documents on a wiki can be tracked. Moreover, when employees leave an organization, their job knowledge is still stored on the wiki and can be a valuable resource for new employees.

Social Media Many organizations are adapting social media tools at an ever-increasing rate. And they have good reason to do so. In addition to reaching thousands of clients in a single message, social media offer a relatively inexpensive way to connect. Employees can post profiles, updates, tweets, blogs, or useful links,

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all for free. They can also do all of these activities from the smartphones, portable media players, or tablets that many organizations give their employees. For businesses, the challenge of social media is figuring out how to harness the positives to increase productivity, particularly when dealing with customers. Dell Inc. has created a social media university for employees who are interested in learning the basics of social media by taking four courses. Over 9,000 employees started the program to better integrate social media into their positions.14 Like Dell, many organizations use social networking sites to establish an identity and harness a relationship with clients. The U.S. Army has a social media division in charge of recruiting. Even the Pope has encouraged priests to tap into digital media options. Some businesses seem to adapt easily to social media. Blendtec, a manufacturer of blenders, became a media star with a series of YouTube videos, Will It Blend?, which put various objects (computer games, iPod, iPad) in its blenders. The video with the iPhone has been viewed almost 12 million times, and Blendtec sales have increased sevenfold. Other businesses have to be more cautious. Mutual funds were slow to embrace social media, partly because of industry regulations. In 2013 however, the Securities and Exchange Commission ruled that informational postings on social media were allowed as long as companies had told investors which sites were going to be used.15 Four of the most common ways to connect with customers are Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and blogs.

Facebook Facebook is a social networking tool where users create a profile and then can chat and share interests with other users. The site has over a billion users worldwide and has become one of the most popular sites in the United States. Beyond buying advertising space, organizations use Facebook as a communication channel with customers by providing updates about business activities, introducing new products or services, providing tips on old ones, informing about upcoming events, encouraging participation in philanthropic causes, or offering discounts or incentives. Organizations can also create focus groups where they can receive or share feedback from clients about products and services. Organizations get data from Likes, links clicked, and customer comments. Dr Pepper measures the social conversation about its brand from the 8.5 million fan base and adjusts marketing messages accordingly. As a result, Dr Pepper gets free marketing when users pass messages on to other Facebook friends.16 As an added bonus to businesses, Facebook connections can increase awareness about their brand by boosting their presence in search engines. Best of all, Facebook easily integrates with other social media platforms, such as Twitter, which offer organizations a complete media link to consumers. Employees within the same organization can build stronger relationships by friending each other. In some organizations, teams have even established Facebook groups to promote camaraderie and create a place to discuss project documents and other concerns. Because of its interactivity, Facebook, like Twitter, is time-consuming for corporate writers. Customers posting to a corporate site expect prompt responses. They also can post misinformation and vulgarities, so it is important that organizations have policies to help guide their social media writers. Employees on Facebook need to remember the public nature of the site. In fact, poor judgment has cost some workers their jobs as a result of posting controversial updates about their employers or uploading inappropriate photos.

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Social Media at Work Many younger employees are joining the job market with their own social media participation or brand. Often, this is referred to as “cobranding,” using social media to build a personal public identity. Such employees can bring with them both positives and negatives for the employer. Positives for the company include prestige, business leads, and free media attention, as well as the recruitment of other media-savvy employees. Such employees can also bring negatives: ■

Online popularity can swell egos—and salary expectations.

■

Employees may find themselves spending an excessive amount of time on their social media, and neglecting other work.

■

Inside information can easily be shared online.

■

A focus or tone in conflict with the corporate image can do much damage, as can a single ill-conceived tweet.

■

Team collaboration can be damaged by jealousy.

Adapted from Alexandra Samuel, “Your Employee Is an Online Celebrity. Now What Do You Do?” Wall Street Journal, October 29, 2012, B7.

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For example, an Atlanta police officer was terminated after posting sensitive job information; Virgin Atlantic fired 13 crew members after they posted mean comments about passengers and spiteful opinions about the airline’s safety standards.17

Twitter Twitter is a microblog that allows users to let their followers know what they’re doing by posting tweets, short messages of 140 characters or less. Twitter offers another way for organizations to create a following, share information, brand themselves, and even eavesdrop on what people say about their competitors. Organizations can follow what other people tweet about them and use the service to provide an additional form of customer service. For example, when a patron in a Fort Worth branch of Chipotle tweeted about the restaurant lacking corn tortillas, the corporate office called the manager before the customer even left.18 Similar to many restaurants and other organizations, Chipotle has service representatives dedicated to social media relations. With over 400 million tweets sent per day worldwide in March 2013 when Twitter turned seven,19 it can be overwhelming for organizations to manage their image and plan appropriate 140-word responses. As an employee, you should consider your audience and context before tweeting, just as you should with all other forms of business communication. Avoid sending tweets like the following: @bossman_GGSA I’m totes going to be late for work today. whacky traffic and coffee shop line is ridic UGH! #suckydaysofar #fail #IhateMondays

This person has probably selected the wrong medium to communicate with the boss, and the slang, uncommon acronym, and multiple hashtags are not appropriate for workplace communication. Instead, be upbeat and positive with workplace tweets: Had a great presentation today with bossman. Lots of great feedback and excited to move onto the next phase!

Although Twitter messages as business communications are still relatively new compared to letters and e-mails, they have already developed some commonly accepted guidelines: ■

Clarity is important. Although tweets are limited to 140 characters, they still need to use enough words so they are not cryptic.

■

Don’t waste people’s time with tweets. If audience responses could be “Who cares?” don’t send it. This guideline particularly applies to most tweets describing what you are doing at the moment.

■

Be sparing with hashtags and acronyms.

■

Slang is generally inappropriate for workplace tweets.

Remember that if your Twitter account is connected to your workplace followers, your tweets not only represent your views but should also reflect positively on your organization. As is true with all social media, you must be careful what you say. Tweets can be searched on Google and can be recalled in defamation lawsuits. Comedian Gilbert Gottfried, the voice of the Aflac duck, got fired over insensitive tweets about the Japanese earthquake and tsunami. New York Congressman Anthony Weiner had to step down after sexual tweets were reported in the media. As a final note to make us all even more cautious,

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the Library of Congress archives all tweets. As of late 2012, they were collecting almost half a billion tweets daily.20

LinkedIn LinkedIn allows professionals to connect with colleagues and other industry members. More than 100 million people use the site. Unlike Facebook or Twitter, which can easily blur the professional and personal line, LinkedIn profiles tend to remain strictly work oriented. Professionals can use the site to network and earn recommendations from past and current clients. Another section allows your connections to endorse skills and expertise you may have. These referrals, in turn, could create more business opportunities. Employees can also join industry associations or alumni groups to expand their network of connections. LinkedIn Answers provides a forum for industry professionals to ask questions and share their expertise, which may also spark new clients. For job searches, LinkedIn allows users to search for new job opportunities, post a résumé, or recruit new employees. Blogs Blogs allow businesses to connect with customers and clients in a more social way than they can on traditional websites. Internal corporate blogs allow managers and employees to share ideas and information. Many public corporate blogs offer information relevant to their business: a catering service may offer food safety tips and recipes; a travel agency may offer travel tips and descriptions of exotic destinations. Other popular content includes employee stories, glimpses inside the business, insider business tips, and question-and-answer features. Good blogs present their content in ways that inspire conversations and encourage readers to comment and then to share the information. The best blogs offer a unique perspective that enables them to stand out from the millions of other blogs on the Internet. While all blogs should be visually attractive, bloggers need to remember that many of their readers will have opted to turn off the visuals. Too many visuals will create an empty-looking blog. Other Social Media Other social media sites are on the rise, and it seems as if new ones are added daily. Figure9.2 lists a few that professionals have been quick to adapt to their business needs. The realm of social media is expanding exponentially. Some systems are designed specifically for businesses. The social media team for Clorox started Clorox Connect, which is a website where suppliers and customers can brainstorm on new product ideas. They have adapted a game model where users

Figure 9.2

Social Media Sites for Professionals

Xing—Similar features as LinkedIn, but more popular in Europe and India. Google1—Google’s version of Facebook containing many similar options. Ning—A site for users to create their own social networking site adapted to their business. NetParty—A site for young professionals to connect online to meet up for happy hour and other after-work activities. Yammer—A Facebook–Twitter mashup tool exclusively for internal corporate communications. Sermo—Site dedicated exclusively to the medical profession; helps doctors solicit opinions, share information, and improve patient care.

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Small Businesses Prefer LinkedIn Over Twitter In a recent survey by the Wall Street Journal of 835 smallbusiness owners, only 3% believed that Twitter could promote their organization. On the other hand, LinkedIn earned a high 41% of respondents who believed the site was beneficial to their business. LinkedIn surpassed other popular social media sites such as Facebook, YouTube, and Google1. The finding suggests that Twitter is not doing enough to educate small-business owners about the benefits of using their service in the same way that LinkedIn has. Much of the focus from Twitter has been on larger businesses, which were the only ones allowed to buy ads through the service. But unlike large organizations, which may have entire teams dedicated to social media, small-business owners do not have the human power or time to figure out how Twitter can be used to heighten their business. What do you think? Can you determine advantages that Twitter might offer small businesses? What benefits might they gleam from a Twitter presence that they cannot get from LinkedIn? Adapted from Emily Maltby and Shira Ovide, “Small Firms Say LinkedIn Works, Twitter Doesn’t,” Wall Street Journal, January 31, 2013, http:// online.wsj.com/article/SB1000 142412788732392610457 8273683427129660.html.

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Managing Your E-mail Inbox Many people use their e-mail inbox as a holding area, sometimes amassing over a thousand e-mails and failing to respond to important ones that slide off the screen. David Allen, a well-known productivity consultant, recommends this process to tame the inbox: 1. Delete as much as possible. 2. File e-mails you need to keep for information but not act on. 3. Handle any e-mail that you can process in two minutes or less. 4. Move the remaining e-mails into one of two folders: ACTION, for e-mails you need to spend time on, and WAITING, for actions you are tracking and situations where you are waiting for the responses of someone else. Many of the e-mails in steps 1 and 2 can be handled without opening. The folders created for step 4 contain the e-mails that most need your attention and thus need to be reviewed on a regular basis—daily, for most people. Adapted from David Allen, Getting Things Done: The Art of Stress-Free Productivity (New York: Penguin Books, 2001), 153–54.

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who contribute helpful ideas gain more visibility and are invited to take part in more difficult problem-solving exercises.21 Other systems have mixed uses. On the for-profit, health data-sharing site PatientsLikeMe, consenting participants provide detailed medical histories and discuss treatment problems. They can also connect with other patients. Information shared on the site is collated for multiple uses. It can be used by patients to manage their own conditions, but it also is available to selected researchers, drug companies, and equipment and service providers to help improve treatments and quality of life.22 Another way that businesses are trying to reach customers is through widgets, tiny software programs that can be dragged, dropped, and embedded into social media sites. Widgets change the way people use the Internet. In the past, people surfed from page to page, but now widgets can bring the power of all those pages into a central location, like a social networking site. Of course, like all technological tools, social media sites have some drawbacks. If workers spend much of their day immersed in social media, how much of their regular work routine is not being completed? A survey of 1,400 large U.S. companies reported that more than half have some restrictions on social media use.23 Other companies monitor what employees do on social media. However, it can be hard to differentiate between social media use for professional and personal purposes, especially when some employees have a single account. A final thought about social media: once workers post information about themselves or their company, electronic copies of that information are stored indefinitely.

E-mails, Letters, and Memos When people think of business communications, many think of e-mails, letters, and paper memos. Letters go to people outside your organization; memos go to people in your organization; e-mails can go anywhere. Today most memos are sent as e-mails rather than paper documents. E-mails, letters, and memos use different formats. The most common formats are illustrated in Appendix A. The simplified letter format is very similar to memo format: it uses a subject line and omits the salutation and the complimentary close. Thus, it is a good choice when you don’t know the reader’s name. The differences in audience and format are the only differences among these documents. All of these messages can be long or short, depending on how much you have to say and how complicated the situation is. All of these messages can be informal when you write to someone you know well, or more formal when you write to someone you don’t know, to several audiences, or for the record. All of these messages can be simple responses that you can dash off in minutes; they can also take hours of analysis and revision when you’re facing a new situation or when the stakes are high.

E-mails, instant and text messages, telephone calls, social media entries, and web searches can all be tracked by your employer and used in lawsuits. You should always observe professional practices while in the workplace.

E-mail Usage E-mails are still the most common form of business communication. According to a widely cited research firm, employees send and receive about 110 e-mails daily. Some estimates say that many employees spend at least a third of their inoffice time on e-mail.24 It is commonly used for these purposes:

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■

To accomplish routine, noncontroversial business activities (setting up meetings/appointments, reminders, notices, quick updates, information sharing).

■

To save time: People can look through 60 to 100 e-mails an hour.

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To save money: one e-mail can go to many people, including global teams.

■

To allow readers to deal with messages at their convenience, when timing is not crucial.

■

To communicate accurately.

■

To provide readers with details for reference (meetings).

■

To create a paper trail.

E-mails do not work well for some purposes. Negative critiques and bad news generally have better outcomes when delivered in person. Sarcasm and irony are too frequently misinterpreted to be safely used. Similarly, avoid passing on gossip in your e-mails. The chances of having your gossip forwarded with your name attached are just too great.

E-mail Etiquette E-mail usage has developed etiquette rules for behaviors to avoid (see also Figure9.3). First on most lists is avoiding the “Reply to all” button unless you are sure everyone on the list needs the information. This button is so irritating that some companies install software to disable the button, and Microsoft has a free disabling add-on for Outlook. Another important rule is greatly limiting use of high-priority markers or subject line words such as URGENT or READ NOW (e-mails containing subject lines with too many capital letters will be trashed by many spam filters). Yet another urgency misstep is calling, or e-mailing again, right away to see if the recipient has read your e-mail. If you need such a fast response, you probably need to phone.

Figure 9.3

E-mail Pet Peeves

• Missing or vague subject lines. • Copying everyone (“Reply to all”), rather than just the people that might find the information useful/interesting. • Too much information/too little information. • Too many instant messaging acronyms. • Lack of capitalization and punctuation. • Long messages without headings or bullets. • Delayed response e-mails that don’t include the original message. Sometimes readers have no idea what the e-mails are responding about. • Writers who send a general request to multiple people, creating confusion about who is responsible for handling the request. • People who expect an immediate answer. • People who never respond to queries. • People who don’t read their e-mail carefully enough to absorb a simple message. • People who send too many unimportant e-mails. • Superfluous images and attachments. • Flaming (angry messages, frequently with extreme language).

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These etiquette missteps are all irritating, but one behavior that can get you into serious trouble is answering someone else’s e-mail without that person’s permission. Even if it is a group e-mail, and even if you answer in an effort to save someone else the bother, if the answer belongs in the responsibilities of someone else, let that person answer it. Salutations for e-mails are in a state of transition. Dear is saved mostly for formal e-mails; Hey is generally considered too informal for business use. Many writers are now starting their e-mails with Hi or Hello (e.g., “Hi Udi,”). And when e-mailing people with whom they are in constant contact, many writers use no salutation at all.

Common E-mail Miscommunication Causes Many people read their e-mails quickly. They may read for only a few seconds or lines to decide if the e-mail is pertinent. Value your readers’ time by designing your e-mail to help them: ■

Put the most important information in the first sentence.

■

If your e-mail is more than one screen long, use an overview, headings, and enumeration to help draw readers to successive screens.

■

Limit your e-mail to one topic. Delete off-topic material.

The ubiquitous e-mail thread is a common cause of information sent to the wrong audience. Frequently it is safer to send a new e-mail, addressed just to the specific people who need to know. A major factor in e-mail miscommunication is the lack of nonverbal cues. Many of the billions of e-mails sent daily contain intentional and unintentional emotions that can cause misinterpretation of information. Remember that e-mails are public documents and may be widely forwarded. Use standard capitalization and spelling; save lowercase and instant message abbreviations for friends, if you use them at all. Features that express emotion, such as underlining, all caps, exclamation points, and emoticons, should be used with great caution. Even a quick confirmation to your boss should look professional. Keep in mind the possibility that your e-mail may not be read. E-mails outside your company may be deflected by a misspelled address, an in-box filter, or an Internet malfunction. With the high volume of items in most in-boxes, it is easy for an e-mail to move off the screen and out of the receiver’s awareness. If you do not receive a response within a reasonable time, follow up. Remember that many people do not consider a one- to two-hour turnaround time reasonable for e-mail. If the item is that urgent, you should choose another means of communication.

WARNING: Never put anything in an e-mail that would embarrass you or harm your career if your employer, colleague, parent, or child saw it. E-mail Misbehaviors Examples abound of public and corporate officials forced to resign because of misbehaviors documented in e-mails they sent to others; reread the list in Chapter 1. But the senders don’t have to be officials to cause the organization trouble. ■

An employee e-mail arranging for a group to leave work early and go drinking at a topless bar was used as evidence of poor oversight in a productcontamination lawsuit against the company.25

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■

Employee e-mails were crucial in the federal suit filed against Standard & Poor’s over credit ratings for bundled mortgage securities that the government claimed were fraudulently inflated.

■

Leaked e-mails from the Climate Research Unit (located at East Anglia University in the United Kingdom) showing bias and exclusion not only created a furor for that research group, but also called into question all research on global warming.

A survey by the American Management Association found that over a quarter of bosses have fired employees for e-mail misuse.26 And of course WikiLeaks has reminded everyone of the dangers hiding in even supposedly secure e-mails.

Organizing Informative and Positive Messages LO 9-4 The patterns of organization in this chapter and others follow standard conventions of business. The patterns will work for many of the writing situations most people in business, nonprofits, and government face. Using the appropriate pattern can help you compose more quickly, create a better final product, and demonstrate you know the conventions.

WARNING: The patterns should never be used blindly. You must always consider whether your audience, purpose, and context would be better served with a different organization. If you decide to use a pattern: ■

Be sure you understand the rationale behind each pattern so that you can modify the pattern when necessary.

■

Realize not every message that uses the basic pattern will have all the elements listed.

■

Realize sometimes you can present several elements in one paragraph; sometimes you’ll need several paragraphs for just one element.

Figure 9.4 shows how to organize informative and positive messages. Figures9.5 and 9.6 illustrate two ways the basic pattern can be applied. The letter in Figure 9.5 announces a change in a magazine’s ownership. Rather than telling subscribers that their magazine has been acquired, which sounds negative, the first two paragraphs describe the change as a merger that will give subscribers greater benefits from the combined magazine. Paragraph 3 provides details about how the arrangement will work, along with a way to opt out. A possible negative is that readers who already have subscriptions to both magazines will now receive only one. The company addresses this situation positively by extending the subscription to the jointly published magazine. The goodwill ending has all the desired characteristics: it is positive (“we’re confident”), personal (“your continued loyalty”), and forwardlooking (“you will enjoy”). The e-mail in Figure9.6 announces a new employee benefit. The first paragraph summarizes the new benefits. Paragraphs 2 and 3 give major details;

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Use To/CC/BCC Lines to Your Advantage To Send your e-mail only to people who will want or need it. If you are sending to multiple people, decide in which order to place the names. Is organizational rank important? Should you alphabetize the list? Don’t hit “reply to all” unless all will appreciate your doing so. CC CC stands for “carbon copy,” from the days of typewriters when carbon paper was used to make multiple copies. CC people who are not directly involved in the business of the e-mail but are interested in it. Marketing may not be helping you produce your new software, but the department may want to stay abreast of the changes to start generating marketing ideas. A committee might CC a secretary who does not attend committee meetings but does maintain the committee’s paper records. Sometimes the CC line is used politically. For example, an administrative assistant doing routine business may CC the boss to give added weight to the e-mail. BCC BCC stands for “blind carbon copy,” a copy that the listed receivers do not know is being sent. Blind copies can create ill will when they become known, so be careful in their use.

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Figure 9.4

How to Organize Informative and Positive Messages

1. Start with good news or the most important information. Summarize the main points. If the audience has already raised the issue, make it clear that you’re responding. 2. Give details, clarification, background. Answer all the questions your audience is likely to have; provide all the information necessary to achieve your purposes. If you are asking or answering multiple questions, number them. Enumeration increases your chances of giving or receiving all the necessary information. Present details in the order of importance to the reader or in some other logical order. 3. Present any negative elements—as positively as possible. A policy may have limits; information may be incomplete; the audience may have to satisfy requirements to get a discount or benefit. Make these negatives clear, but present them as positively as possible. 4. Explain any benefits. Most informative messages need benefits. Show that the policy or procedure helps your audience, not just the company. Give enough detail to make the benefits clear and convincing. In letters, you may want to give benefits of dealing with your company as well as benefits of the product or policy. In a good-news message, it’s often possible to combine a short benefit with a goodwill ending. 5. Use a goodwill ending: positive, personal, and forward-looking. Shifting your emphasis away from the message to the specific audience suggests that serving the audience is your real concern.

further details are saved for the plan’s brochure. Negative elements are stated as positively as possible. The last section of the e-mail gives benefits and a goodwill ending.

Subject Lines for Informative and Positive Messages A subject line is the title of a document. It aids in filing and retrieving the document, tells readers why they need to read the document, and provides a framework in which to set what you’re about to say. Subject lines are standard in memos and e-mails. Letters are not required to have subject lines (see Appendix A, “Formats for Letters, and E-mail Messages”). A good subject line meets three criteria: it is specific, concise, and appropriate to the kind of message (positive, negative, persuasive).

Making Subject Lines Specific The subject line needs to be specific enough to differentiate its message from others on the same subject, but broad enough to cover everything in the message. Too general:

Training Sessions

Better:

Dates for 2012 Training Sessions

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Figure 9.5

Sharing Informative and Positive Messages with Appropriate Technology

A Positive Informational Letter

P.O. Box 12345 Tampa, FL 33660 813-555-5555 June 17, 2014

Dear Ms. Locker:

t Main poind te n e s pre as good news

We’re excited to share some great news! eBusCompanyToday has merged with another business magazine, High-Tech Business News. This merged publication will be called High-Tech Business News and will continue to be edited and published by the eBusCompanyToday staff. The “new” High-Tech Business News is a great tool for navigating today’s relentlessly

cus changing marketplace, particularly as it’s driven by the Internet and other technologies. It Details fo fits e n e b reports on the most innovative business practices and the people behind them; on to the delivers surprising, useful insights; and explains how to put them to work. Please be reader assured that you will continue to receive the same great editorial coverage that you’ve come to expect from eBusCompanyToday.

You will receive the “new” High-Tech Business News in about 4 weeks, starting with the combined August/September issue. If you already subscribe to High-Tech Business News, your subscription will be extended accordingly. And if you’d rather not receive this Option to publication, please call 1-800-555-5555 within the next 3 weeks. cel is

can ut offered b ized Thank you for your continued loyalty to eBusCompanyToday; we’re confident that you not emphas

Positive, will enjoy reading High-Tech Business News every month. personal, forwardlooking Sincerely, ending Alan Schmidt, Editor and President

High-Tech Business News is published monthly except for two issues combined periodically into one and occasional extra, expanded or premium issues.

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Figure 9.6

Basic Business Messages

A Positive E-mail, Sent to Chamber of Commerce Employees and Members Health Care Benefits for Same-Sex Long-term Partners - Message (Rich Text)

Lee Ann Rabe Vijay Ramanathan

Names of other recipients are hidden in a large mailing

Health Care Benefits for Same-Sex Long-term Partners

Good news in subject line and first paragraph

Beginning May 1, same-sex long-term partners of employees covered by the Chamber health plan will be eligible for the same coverage as spouses. Details of new benefit

In order to have a long-term partner covered, an employee must sign an affidavit in the Human Resources Department stating that the employee and his or her partner (1) live together, (2) intend to stay together, and (3) are responsible for each other. If the relationship ends, employees must notify the Human Resources Department within 30 days, just as do married couples who divorce. Negatives presented as positively as possible Costs and coverage of the Chamber's health plan remain the same. Dental and vision coverage are also available for a fee; limitations apply and remain the same. For information about the specifics of the Chamber's health plan, pick up a brochure in the Human Resources Department.

The new policy will affect not only Chamber employees but also the small businesses that are a part of the Audience Chamber’s health plan. New businesses may see the change as a reason to join the Chamber–and the health benefits plan. Growth in the health plan creates a wider base for insurance premiums and helps keep costs as low as possible. More benefits

Making the health plan more comprehensive keeps us competitive with other major US cities. A policy change like this one shows Columbus’ continued goodwill toward minorities in general and will make convincing businesses to relocate here that much easier. Selling Columbus as a good place to live and do business has never been easier. Goodwill ending

In-house signature block, without mailing address

Lee Ann Rabe Vice President for Human Resources Columbus Chamber of Commerce 293-4745

Making Subject Lines Concise Most subject lines are relatively short. MailerMailer, a web-based e-mail management service, found that e-mails whose subject lines were 4 to 15 characters were more likely to be opened by readers than subject lines with more than 35 characters.27 Wordy: Student Preferences in Regards to Various Pizza Factors Better:

Students’ Pizza Preferences

If you can’t make the subject both specific and short, be specific.

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Making Subject Lines Appropriate for the Pattern of Organization Since your subject line introduces your reader to your message, it must satisfy the psychological demands of the situation; it must be appropriate to your purposes and to the immediate response you expect from your reader. In general, do the same thing in your subject line that you would do in the first paragraph. When you have good news for the reader, build goodwill by highlighting it in the subject line. When your information is neutral, summarize it concisely for the subject line.

Subject:

Discount on Rental Cars Effective January 2

Starting January 2, as an employee of Amalgamated Industries you can get a 15% discount on cars you rent for business or personal use from Roadway Rent-a-Car.

Subject:

Update on Videoconference with France

In the last month, we have chosen the participants and developed a tentative agenda for the March 21 videoconference with France.

Pointers for E-mail Subject Lines Many people skim through large lists of e-mails daily, so subject lines in e-mails are even more important than those in letters and memos. Subject lines must be specific, concise, and catchy. In these days of spam, some e-mail users get so many messages that they don’t bother reading messages if they don’t recognize the sender or if the subject doesn’t catch their interest. Create a subject line that will help your e-mail get read:

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Use important information in the subject line. Many people delete blanks and generic tags such as “hello,” “your message,” “thank you,” and “next meeting,” if they don’t recognize the sender, especially now that so much spam has common business tags.

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Put good news in the subject line.

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Name drop to make a connection: Lee Pizer gave me your name.

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Make e-mail sound easy to deal with: Two Short Travel Questions.

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New topics need new subject lines; do not attach a new topic to an e-mail string on a different topic.

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Do not use indefinite dates such as Today, Tomorrow, Next Week, or even Wednesday, as subject lines. They are no longer clear if read at a later time.

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When you reply to a message, check to see that the automatic subject line “Re: [subject line of message to which you are responding]” is still appropriate. If it isn’t, you may want to create a new subject line. And if a series of messages arises, you probably need a new subject line. “Re: Re: Re: Re: Question” is not an effective subject line.

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The following subject lines would be acceptable for informative and good-news e-mail messages: Travel Plans for Sales Meeting Your Proposal Accepted Reduced Prices during February Your Funding Request Approved

Managing the Information in Your Messages Information control is important. You want to give your audience the information they need, but you don’t want to overwhelm them with information. Sometimes you will have good reasons for not providing all the information they want. When you are the person in the know, it is easy to overestimate how much your audience knows. After Hurricane Sandy, scientists at the National Hurricane Center learned that law enforcement and hospital personnel, as well as local and state officials, did not understand the warnings issued about storm surge. To clear up confusion, scientists learned they should give surge figures in heights, rather than depths (the figures would be exactly the same, of course) and to provide clearer information on how far inland the surge would reach.28 But, of course, information management is not always that simple. Pharmaceutical companies struggle with how much information to provide Transocean mishandled a positive message. See the sidebar about their drugs. In 2004, the Food and Drug “Too Much Positive Spin” on the next page. Administration (FDA) publicized an analysis showing that young people on antidepressants had a 2% risk of suicidal thoughts. There were no actual suicides reported in the studies, just suicidal thoughts. Nevertheless, the FDA put a Black Box warning—the strongest possible warning—on antidepressants. Parents and physicians began backing away from the medications. Use of SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) medications in young people declined 14%, and suicides increased 18% among young people the first year of the warnings.29 Sometimes organizations get in trouble because their information management withholds information that others—shareholders, regulators, customers, etc.—believe should be revealed. Credit Suisse paid $120 million to settle with the Securities and Exchange Commission over allegations that it failed to disclose relevant mortgage practices. New federal regulations in 2012 require 401(k) plans to provide new, more detailed fee disclosures consolidated into one document.30 Other concerns about managing information are more prosaic. ■

If you send out regularly scheduled messages on the same topic, such as monthly updates of training seminars, develop a system that lets people know immediately what is new. Use color for new or changed entries. Put new material at the top.

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If you are answering multiple questions, use numbers.

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If your e-mail is long (more than one screen), use overviews, headings, and bullets so readers can find the information they need.

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If you are asking people to complete processes involving multiple steps or complicated knowledge, use checklists. Once maligned as too elementary, checklists are being recognized as a major tool to prevent errors. Atul Gawande has popularized the trend with his book, The Checklist Manifesto: How to Get Things Right, showing how checklists are used in fields as diverse as aviation, construction, and medicine to eliminate mistakes.

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If you send messages with an attachment, put the most vital information in the e-mail too. Don’t make readers open an attachment merely to find out the time or location of a meeting.

Check your message for accuracy and completeness. Remember all the e-mails you receive about meetings that forget to include the time, place, or date, and don’t let your e-mails fall in that incomplete category. Make a special effort to ensure that promised attachments really are attached. Be particularly careful with the last messages you send for the day or the week, when haste can cause errors.

Using Benefits in Informative and Positive Messages Not all informative and positive messages need benefits. You don’t need benefits when ■

You are presenting factual information only.

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The audience’s attitude toward the information doesn’t matter.

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The benefits may make the audience seem selfish.

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The benefits are so obvious that to restate them insults the audience’s intelligence.

You do need benefits when ■

Presenting policies.

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Shaping your audience’s attitudes toward the information or toward your organization.

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Stressing benefits presents the audience’s motives positively.

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Presenting benefits that may not be obvious.

Benefits are hardest to develop when you are announcing policies. The organization probably decided to adopt the policy because it appeared to help the organization; the people who made the decision may not have thought at all about whether it would help or hurt employees. Yet benefits are most essential in this kind of message so employees see the reason for the change and support it. When you present benefits, be sure to present advantages to the audience. Most new policies help the organization in some way, but few workers will

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Too Much Positive Spin In March 2011 Transocean issued its annual report, which stated, “We recorded the best year in safety performance in our Company’s history.” Unfortunately, Transocean is the owner of Deepwater Horizon, the oil rig that exploded in the Gulf of Mexico, killing 11 workers, injuring another 17, and triggering the largest—and most publicized—oil spill in the history of the United States. Millions of barrels of oil gushed into the ocean over three months, causing an environmental disaster. In its report, Transocean attempted to minimize the accident to place greater emphasis on its good news: “Notwithstanding the tragic loss of life in the Gulf of Mexico, we achieved an exemplary statistical safety record as measured by our total recordable incident rate and total potential severity rate.” The strategy backfired. News articles about the report focused on the phrase “the best year in safety performance” and the six-figure bonuses and salary increases for the executives, all only months after the disaster. By failing to craft its positive annual report with sensitivity to the situation, Transocean saw a positive message turned into another negative strike against the company. Sources: Transocean website, accessed June 7, 2011, http: //www.deepwater.com; “Despite Gulf Oil Spill, Rig Owner Executives Get Big Bonuses,” CNN, April 4, 2011, http://edition.cnn.com/2011/ BUSINESS/04/03/gulf.spill .bonuses/index.html; and “Gulf Oil Rig Owner Apologizes for Calling 2010 ‘Best Year’ Ever,” CNN, April 4, 2011, http://www .cnn.com/2011/US/04/04/gulf .spill.bonuses/index.html? hpt=T2.

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Goldman Sachs Communication Policies These are some statements from Goldman Sachs communication policies: ■

“It is the policy of the firm to make no comment on rumors whatsoever, even to deny rumors you believe to be untrue.”

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“Prior to recommending that a customer purchase, sell or exchange any security, salespeople must have reasonable grounds for believing that the recommendation is suitable.”

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“Firm employees frequently provide so-called ‘trade ideas’ to multiple recipients. Such trade ideas are designed to help clients take advantage of market conditions and intelligence, but are not intended to be specific buy/sell recommendations.”

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“All sales correspondence from or to employees working from home offices must be routed through regional offices for purposes of review, approval, distribution and retention.”

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“Casual correspondence, thank you notes, confirmations or schedules for meetings, invitations, and other correspondence that does not relate to business does not require approval.”

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“Each individual’s correspondence must be sampled no less often than annually.”

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“‘To All’ memos ... must be approved as described ... in the Employee Handbook.”

Quoted from Max Abelson and Caroline Winter, “The Goldman Rules,” Bloomberg Businessweek, April 25, 2011, 90–91.

Basic Business Messages

see their own interests as identical with those of the organization. Employees’ benefits need to be spelled out, as do those of customers. To save money, an organization may change health care providers, but the notice to employees should spell out new benefits for employees and their families. Airlines announced new check-in kiosks to customers as a way to avoid lines and save travelers’ time. To develop benefits for informative and positive messages, use the steps suggested in Chapter 2. Be sure to think about benefits that come from the activity or policy itself, in addition to any financial benefits. Perhaps a policy improves customers’ experience or the hours employees spend at work.

Ending Informative and Positive Messages Ending a letter or e-mail gracefully can be a problem in short informative and positive messages. In an e-mail where you have omitted details and proof, you can tell readers where to get more information. In long messages, you can summarize your basic point. In a short message containing all the information readers need, either write a goodwill paragraph that refers directly to the reader or the reader’s organization, or just stop. In many short e-mails, just stopping is the best choice. Goodwill endings should focus on the business relationship you share with your reader rather than on the reader’s hobbies, family, or personal life. Use a paragraph that shows you see your reader as an individual. Possibilities include complimenting the reader for a job well done, describing a benefit, or looking forward to something positive that relates to the subject of the message. Thank you so much for sending those two extra sales tables. They were just what I needed for Section IV of the report.

When you write to one person, a good last paragraph fits that person so specifically that it would not work if you sent the same basic message to someone else or even to a person with the same title in another organization. When you write to someone who represents an organization, the last paragraph can refer to your company’s relationship to the reader’s organization. When you write to a group (for example, to “All Employees”), your ending should apply to the whole group. Remember that the deadline for enrolling in this new benefit plan is January 31.

Some writers end every message with a standard invitation: If you have questions, please do not hesitate to ask.

That sentence implies both that your message did not answer all questions, and that readers will hesitate to contact you. Both implications are negative. But revising the line to say “feel free to call” is rarely a good idea. People in business aren’t shrinking violets; they will call if they need help. Don’t make more work for yourself by inviting calls to clarify simple messages. Simply omit this sentence.

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Story in Informative Messages Now that employees are used to easy and fast accessibility of information, employers are looking for ways to help information cohere and stick, both among factoids and within employees’ minds. One way to achieve this goal that is gaining business attention is through the power of stories. In the business world, stories are narratives but not fiction, and they are usually brief—a paragraph or two. Nevertheless, these stories enable us to put facts in a context, frequently with emotional underpinnings. The context and the emotion help us to understand and remember information. ■

When a popular driver for a city bus company was nearly crushed to death between two parked buses, the company used the story of the driver’s accident and agonizing recovery to help drivers remember the safety procedure designed to prevent such accidents in the future.

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Popular business books such as Fish and Who Moved My Cheese? are told as fables.

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A software company has its experienced technical support personnel help new employees, freshly out of their four-month technical training, by telling stories of a particular problem with a particular customer and how it was solved. The stories help new employees put their technical knowledge into a human context.

Humor in Informative Messages Some communicators use humor to ensure their messages are read or heard. In fact, four decades of research show that skillfully used humor can help in some communication situations. The research also shows that the best executives use humor twice as often as do mediocre managers.31 Humor is a risky tool because of its tendency to rile some people. However, if you know your audience well, humor may help ensure that they absorb your message. If you decide to use humor, these precautions will help keep it useful. ■

Do not direct it against other people, even if you are sure they will never see your message. The Internet abounds with proof that such certainties are false. In particular, never aim humor against a specific group of people.

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Political, religious, and sexual humor should always be avoided; it is against discrimination policies in many businesses.

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Use restraint with your humor; a little levity goes a long way.

Used with care, humor in carefully chosen situations can help your communications. An information technology person sent the following e-mail in his nonprofit organization:32 My set of screw driver tips is missing. I may well have loaned them to someone, perhaps weeks ago. If you have them, please return them to me. I use them when someone reports that they have a screw loose.

He got his tips back promptly. Because he had a reputation for clever e-mails, people regularly read his messages.

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The Importance of Storytelling Many global corporations have noted that field reports often go unread. The World Bank Group’s International Finance Corporation is working to change that. It has initiated a new program, SmartLessons, to help transfer information by embedding it in stories. IFC suggests the following tips when using stories: ■

Be honest; include setbacks.

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Convey the emotional impact of events.

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Give credit where it is due.

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Allow readers to rate their stories. SmartLessons even gives prizes to those who are top-rated.

SmartLessons can be searched by criteria such as geographic location and topic, and they are successful. Of the 159 IFC-tracked intranets, it is the most popular. Adapted from Shad Morris and James B. Oldroyd, “To Boost Knowledge Transfer, Tell Me a Story,” Harvard Business Review, May 2009, 23; and “SmartLessons,” Internation Finance Corporation, 2013, http://smartlessons.ifc .org/smartlessons/page .html?page=834.

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Wacky Warning Contest Winners M-LAW (Michigan Lawsuit Abuse Watch) posts these winners: ■

“Do not iron while wearing shirt” (on iron-on T-shirt transfer).

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“Caution: Safety goggles recommended” (on letter opener).

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“Do not put any person in this washer” (on clothes washer).

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“Never use a lit match or open flame to check fuel level” (instructions for a personal water craft).

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“Harmful if swallowed” (on a fishing lure with a threepronged hook).

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“If you do not understand, or cannot read, all directions, cautions and warnings, do not use this product” (on bottle of drain cleaner).

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“This product not intended for use as a dental drill” (on electric drill for carpenters).

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“Remove child before folding” (on baby stroller).

Adapted from “M-LAW’s Wacky Warning Labels: 11th Annual Wacky Warning Label Contest Winners,” Michigan Lawsuit Abuse Watch, accessed May 25, 2013, http://www.mlaw.org/ wwl/photos.html.

Basic Business Messages

Varieties of Informative and Positive Messages LO 9-5 Many messages can be informative, negative, or persuasive depending on what you have to say. A transmittal, for example, can be positive when you’re sending glowing sales figures or persuasive when you want the reader to act on the information. A performance appraisal is positive when you evaluate someone who’s doing superbly, negative when you want to compile a record to justify firing someone, and persuasive when you want to motivate a satisfactory worker to continue to improve. Each of these messages is discussed in the chapter of the pattern it uses most frequently. However, in some cases you will need to use a pattern from a different chapter.

Transmittals When you send someone something, you frequently need to attach a transmittal message explaining what you’re sending. A transmittal can be as simple as a small yellow sticky note with “FYI” (“for your information”) written on it, or it can be a separate typed document. Organize a transmittal message in this order: 1. Tell the reader what you’re sending. 2. Summarize the main point(s) of the document. 3. Indicate any special circumstances or information that would help the reader understand the document. Is it a draft? Is it a partial document that will be completed later? 4. Tell the reader what will happen next. Will you do something? Do you want a response? If you do want the reader to act, specify exactly what you want the reader to do and give a deadline. Frequently transmittals have important secondary purposes. A transmittal from marketing to a store might have the primary purpose of giving the client a chance to affirm the marketing plan. If there’s anything wrong, marketing wants to know before spending money developing the plan. But an important secondary purpose is to build goodwill: “I’m working on your plan; I’m earning my fee.”

Summaries You may be asked to summarize a conversation, a document, or an outside meeting for colleagues or superiors. (Minutes of an internal meeting are usually more detailed. See Chapter8 for advice on writing minutes of meetings.) In a summary of a conversation for internal use, identify the people who were present, the topic of discussion, decisions made, and who does what next. To summarize a document, start with the main point. Then go on to summarize supporting evidence or details for that point. Add

Signs with information about nutritional content of food help consumers make healthier choices.

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Preparing for Zombies How do you get people to read information they think is going to be boring? The Centers for Disease Control started a zombie apocalypse campaign as a way to direct attention to disaster preparedness. The zombie-themed messages were a unique way to raise interest in the campaign and reached a wider audience with their important safety and natural disaster information. They were particularly effective with younger audiences, who were not familiar with how to prepare for disasters—a primary audience the CDC wanted to reach. Many emergency departments, like those in the CDC, have a limited budget, so posting humorous blog posts to their websites is one way to bring in readers while still disseminating important safety information. Ten minutes after posting the zombie information, the CDC blog site crashed as 30,000 tried to read it. Once restored, the site had more than 60,000 views per hour. Officials were understandably pleased. As one official noted, preparing for a zombie disaster is not much different than preparing for a natural disaster.

The CDC used zombie popularity to help spread information on disaster preparedness. See sidebar on this page.

the subsidiary points if your audience needs them. In some cases, your audience may also want you to evaluate the document. Should others in the company read this report? Should someone in the company write a letter to the editor responding to this newspaper article? After you visit a client or go to a conference, you may be asked to share your findings and impressions with other people in your organization. Chronological accounts are the easiest to write but the least useful for the reader. Your company doesn’t need a blow-by-blow account of what you did; it needs to know what it should do as a result of the meeting. Summarize a visit with a client or customer in this way: 1. Put the main point from your organization’s point of view—the action to be taken, the perceptions to be changed—in the first paragraph. 2. Provide an umbrella paragraph to cover and foreshadow the points you will make in the report. 3. Provide necessary detail to support your conclusions and cover each point. Use lists and headings to make the structure of the document clear.

Adapted from Sydney Lupkin, “Government Zombie Promos are Spreading,” abcnews.go.com, September 7, 2012, http://abcnews .go.com/blogs/health/2012/ 09/07/government-zombiepromos-are-spreading/.

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Hey Manager! Are You Getting the Information You Need from Your Employees? Probably not, according to research reported in the Harvard Business Review. Even employees who do speak up sometimes frequently have issues on which they keep silent. The most common reason for holding back is a sense of futility, not fear of retribution. This is especially true for routine problems and opportunities. And even that fear deterrent may not be just what you think. You may think it applies only to serious problems: allegations about illegal or unethical activities. But it too, like the sense of futility, applies to routine problems and opportunities. Silence on these day-to-day issues prevents action to avoid larger problems in the future. When you become a manager, what steps will you take to promote effective communication to and from your employees? Adapted from James R. Deter, Ethan R Burris, and David A Harrison, “Debunking Four Myths about Employee Silence,” Harvard Business Review 88, no. 6 (June 2010): 26.

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In the following example, the revised first paragraph summarizes the sales representative’s conclusions after a call on a prospective client. Weak original: On October 10th, Rick Patel and I made a joint call on Consolidated Tool Works. The discussion was held in a conference room, with the following people present: 1. Kyle McCloskey (Vice President and General Manager) 2. Bill Petrakis (Manufacturing Engineer) 3. Garett Lee (Process Engineering Supervisor) 4. Courtney Mansor-Green (Project Engineer)

Improved revision: Consolidated Tool Works is an excellent prospect for purchasing a Matrix-Churchill grinding machine. To get the order, we should 1. Set up a visit for CTW personnel to see the Matrix-Churchill machine in Kansas City; 2. Guarantee 60-day delivery if the order is placed by the end of the quarter; and 3. Extend credit terms to CTW.

Thank-You and Positive Feedback Notes We all like to feel appreciated. Praising or congratulating people can cement good feelings between you and them and enhance your own visibility. Congratulations, Sam, on winning the Miller sales award. I bet winning that huge Lawson contract didn’t hurt any!

Make your praise sound sincere by offering specifics and avoiding language that might seem condescending or patronizing. For example, think how silly it would sound to praise an employee for completing basic job requirements or to gush that one’s mentor has superior knowledge. In contrast, thanks for a kind deed and congratulations or praise on completing a difficult task are rewarding in almost any situation. Sending a thank-you note will make people more willing to help you again in the future. Thank-you notes can be short but must be prompt. They need to be specific to sound sincere. Chris, thank you for the extra-short turnaround time. You were a major reason we made the deadline.

Most thank-you notes are e-mails now, so handwritten ones stand out. If you make it a habit to watch for opportunities to offer thanks and congratulations, you may be pleasantly surprised at the number of people who are extending themselves. During his six-year term, Douglas Conant, chief executive of Campbell, sent over 16,000 handwritten thank-you notes to employees ranging from top executives to hourly workers.33 As Kenneth Blanchard and Spencer Johnson, authors of the business best seller The One Minute Manager, note, “People who feel good about themselves produce good results.”34

Positive Responses to Complaints Complaining customers expect organizations to show that they are listening and want to resolve the problem. When you grant a customer’s request for an adjusted price, discount, replacement, or other benefit to resolve a complaint, do so in the very first sentence.

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Thank-you notes can be written on standard business stationery, using standard formats. But one student noticed that his professor really liked dogs and told funny dog stories in class. So the student found a dog card for a thank-you note.

Your Visa bill for a night’s lodging has been adjusted to $163. Next month a credit of $37 will appear on your bill to reimburse you for the extra amount you were originally asked to pay.

Don’t talk about your own process in making the decision. Don’t say anything that sounds grudging. Give the reason for the original mistake only if it reflects credit on the company. (In most cases, it doesn’t, so the reason should be omitted.)

Solving a Sample Problem Workplace problems are richer and less well defined than textbook problems and cases. But even textbook problems require analysis before you begin to write. Before you tackle the assignments for this chapter, examine the following problem. See how the analysis questions from Chapter 1 probe the basic points required for a solution. Study the two sample solutions to see what makes one unacceptable and the other one good. Note the recommendations for revision that could make the good solution excellent. The checklist at the end of the chapter can help you evaluate a draft.

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I Agreed to What?

Problem

Every piece of software or app installed on a computer or smartphone comes with an End User License Agreement (EULA) that acts as a contract between the user and the company. But these long statements, written in heavy legalese, sometimes ask users to agree to odd conditions. One agreement placed online in April 2010 by the British online store Gamestation says, “By placing an order via this Web site, you agree to grant us a non-transferable option to claim, for now and forever more, your immortal soul.” Proving that most do not read these agreements, more than 7,500 people agreed to the terms in only one day. Adapted from Eric Felten, “Video Game Tort: You Made Me Play You,” Wall Street Journal, September 3, 2010, W17.

At Interstate Fidelity Insurance (IFI) there is often a time lag between receiving a payment from a customer and recording it on the computer. Sometimes, while the payment is in line to be processed, the computer sends out additional past-due notices or collection letters. Customers are frightened or angry and ask for an explanation. In most cases, if they just waited a little while, the situation would be straightened out. But policyholders are afraid that they’ll be without insurance because the company thinks the bill has not been paid. IFI doesn’t have the time to check each individual situation to see if the check did arrive and has been processed. It wants you to write an e-mail that will persuade customers to wait. If something is wrong and the payment never reached IFI, IFI would send a legal notice to that effect saying the policy would be canceled by a certain date (which the notice would specify) at least 30 days after the date on the original premium bill. Continuing customers always get this legal notice as a third chance (after the original bill and the past-due notice). Prepare a form e-mail that can go out to every policyholder who claims to have paid a premium for automobile insurance and resents getting a past-due notice. The e-mail should reassure readers and build goodwill for IFI.

Analysis of the Problem 1. Who is (are) your audience(s)? Automobile insurance customers who say they’ve paid but have still received a past-due notice. They’re afraid they’re no longer insured. Since it’s a form response, different readers will have different situations. In some cases payments did arrive late, in some cases the company made a mistake, in some the customer never paid (check was lost in mail, unsigned, bounced, etc.).

2. What are your purposes in writing? You—A Most Important Subject On the job, one of the most important subjects you can communicate about is your own performance. Make sure your boss knows what you are doing. You don’t have to brag; simply noting your accomplishments is usually enough, because many employees do not take the time to do so. Remember that raises are based not on the hard work you actually do, but the hard work your boss knows about. Furthermore, bosses count the work they want done, which is not always the work employees emphasize. Provide your boss with paper copies of your work; CC him/ her on major e-mails, if appropriate. Have 30-second blurbs ready for times when you and your boss are alone in the elevator or break room: “We got the McCluskey contract ready a day early” or “the new G7 database is going to IT tomorrow.”

To reassure readers that they’re covered for 30 days. To inform them that they can assume everything is OK unless they receive a second notice. To avoid further correspondence on this subject. To build goodwill for IFI: (a) we don’t want to suggest IFI is error-prone or too cheap to hire enough people to do the necessary work; (b) we don’t want readers to switch companies; (c) we do want readers to buy from IFI when they’re ready for more insurance.

3. What information must your message include? Readers are still insured. We cannot say whether their checks have now been processed (company doesn’t want to check individual accounts). Their insurance will be canceled if they do not pay after receiving the second past-due notice (the legal notice).

4. How can you build support for your position? What reasons or benefits will your audience find convincing? We provide personal service to policyholders. We offer policies to meet all their needs. Both of these points would need specifics to be interesting and convincing.

5. What aspects of the total situation may affect audience response? The economy? The time of year? Morale in the organization? The relationship between the communicator and audience? Any special circumstances? The insurance business is highly competitive—other companies offer similar rates and policies. The customer could get a similar policy for about the same money from someone else. The economy is making money tight, so customers will want to keep insurance costs low. Yet the fact that prices are steady or rising means that the value of what they own is higher—they need insurance more than ever. Many insurance companies are refusing to renew policies (car, liability, home). These refusals to renew have gotten lots of publicity, and many people have heard horror stories about companies and individuals whose insurance has been canceled or not renewed after a small number of claims. Readers don’t feel very kindly toward insurance companies. People need car insurance. If they have an accident and aren’t covered, they not only have to bear the costs of that accident alone but also (depending on

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state law) may need to place as much as $50,000 in a state escrow account to cover future accidents. They have a legitimate worry. We are slow in processing payments. We don’t know if the checks have been processed. We will cancel policies if their checks don’t arrive.

Discussion of the Sample Solutions The solution in Figure9.7 is unacceptable. The red marginal comments show problem spots. Since this is a form response, we cannot tell customers we have their checks; in some cases, we may not. The e-mail is far too negative. The explanation in paragraph 2 makes IFI look irresponsible and uncaring. Paragraph 3 is far too negative. Paragraph 4 is too vague; there are no benefits; the ending sounds selfish. A major weakness with the solution is that it lifts phrases straight out of the problem; the writer does not seem to have thought about the problem or about the words he or she is using. Measuring the draft against the answers to the questions for analysis suggests that this writer should start over. The solution in Figure 9.8 is much better. The blue marginal comments show the e-mail’s good points. The message opens strongly with the good news that is true for all audiences. Paragraph 2 explains IFI’s policy in more positive terms. The negative information is buried in paragraph 3 and is presented positively: the notice is information, not a threat; the 30-day extension is a “grace period.” Telling the reader now what to do if a second notice arrives eliminates the need for a second exchange of letters. Paragraph 4 offers

Figure 9.7

An Unacceptable Solution to the Sample Problem Your payment - Message (Rich Text)

Dale Iverson Case Volker

Your payment

ague

v Too

Dear Customer:

e. ssarily tru Not nece problem. d Rerea

Relax. We got your check. This n o ti a n la exp makes There is always a time lag between the time payments come in and the time they are company. processed. While payments are waiting to be processed, the computer with look bad super-human quickness is sending out past-due notices and threats of cancellation. Too negative Cancellation is not something you should worry about. No policy would be canceled without a legal notice to that effect giving a specific date for cancellation which would Need to be at least 30 days after the date on the original premium notice. present ively it s o this p If you want to buy more insurance, just contact your local Interstate Fidelity agent. We will be happy to help you. ough to isn't specific en This paragrapher benefit. It lacks Sincerely, work as a read d positive emphasis. Dale Iverson you-attitude an

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Figure 9.8

Basic Business Messages

A Good Solution to the Sample Problem Your auto insurance - Message (Rich Text)

Dale Iverson Case Volker

Your auto insurance

Better: use computer to name and Dear Customer: personalize. Put inific reader address of a spec . True Good ¶ 1aders Your auto insurance is still in effect. re ll for a

Good to treat notice as information, tell reader what to do if it arrives

Benefits of using IFI Need to add benefits of insuring with IFI

Past-due notices are mailed out if the payment has not been processed within three days after the due date. This may happen if a check is delayed in the mail or arrives without a signature or account number. When your check arrives with all the necessary information, it is promptly credited to your account. Good you-attitude Even if a check is lost in the mail and never reaches us, you still have a 30-day grace period. If you do get a second notice, you'll know that we still have not received your check. To keep your insurance in force, just stop payment on the first check and send a second one. IFI is always checking to ensure that you get any discounts you're eligible for: multicar, accident-free record, good student. If you have a claim, your agent finds quality repair shops quickly, whatever car you drive. You get a check quickly—usually within 3 Too negative working days—without having to visit dealer after dealer for time-consuming estimates. er Better to put in agent's name, phone numb Today, your home and possessions are worth more than ever. You can protect them with Interstate Fidelity's homeowners' and renters' policies. Let your local agent show you how easy it is to give yourself full protection. If you need a special rider to insure a personal computer, jewelry, a coin or gun collection, or a fine antique, you can get that from IFI, too. Good specifics Whatever your insurance needs—auto, home, life, or health—one call to IFI can do it all. Sincerely, Dale Iverson

Acceptable ending

benefits for being insured by IFI. Paragraph 5 promotes other policies the company sells and prepares for the last paragraph. As the red comments indicate, this good solution could be improved by personalizing the salutation and by including the name and number of the local agent. Computers could make both of those insertions easily. This good response could be made excellent by revising paragraph 4 so that it doesn’t end on a negative note and by using more benefits. For instance, can agents advise clients of the best policies for them? Does IFI offer good service—quick, friendly, unpressured—that could be stressed? Are agents well trained? All of these might yield ideas for additional benefits.

Chapter 9

Sharing Informative and Positive Messages with Appropriate Technology

Checklist

Checklist for Informative and Positive Messages In positive messages, does the subject line give the good news? In either message, is the subject line specific enough to differentiate this message from others on the same subject? Does the first paragraph summarize the information or good news? If the information is too complex to fit into a single paragraph, does the paragraph list the basic parts of the policy or information in the order in which the message discusses them? Is all the information given in the message? What information is needed will vary depending on the message, but information about dates, places, times, and anything related to money usually needs to be included. When in doubt, ask! In messages announcing policies, is there at least one benefit for each segment of the audience? Are all benefits ones that seem likely to occur in this organization? Is each benefit developed, showing that the benefit will come from the policy and why the benefit matters to this audience? Do the benefits build on the specific circumstances of the audience? Does the message end with a positive paragraph—preferably one that is specific to the readers, not a general one that could fit any organization or policy? And, for all messages, not just informative and positive ones, Does the message use you-attitude and positive emphasis? Is the tone friendly? Is the style easy to read? Is the visual design of the message inviting? Is the format correct? Does the message use standard grammar? Is it free from typos? Originality in a positive or informative message may come from Creating good headings, lists, and visual impact. Developing benefits. Thinking about audiences; giving details that answer their questions and make it easier for them to understand and follow the policy.

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Part 3

Basic Business Messages

Summary by Learning Objectives LO 9-1

What the purposes of informative and positive messages are.

Informative and positive messages have a primary purpose of providing information and good news in a positive manner, as well as multiple secondary purposes such as creating a positive image of the sender and the sender’s organization. LO 9-2

What kinds of newer communication hardware are entering offices.

Smartphones, portable media players, tablets, and videoconferencing equipment are enhancing business communications. LO 9-3

When and how to use common business media effectively.

Good communicators need to thoughtfully select one of the common modes of communications: face-to-face contact, phone calls, instant messages and text messaging, social media, letters, e-mails, and paper memos. Media choices depend on the audience, context, and purpose of the message. LO 9-4

How to organize informative and positive messages.

Informative and positive messages normally use the following pattern of organization: 1. Start with good news or the most important information; summarize the main points. 2. Give details, clarification, background. 3. Present any negative elements—as positively as possible.

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4. Explain any benefits. 5. Use a goodwill ending: positive, personal, and forward-looking. A subject line is the title of a document. A good subject line meets three criteria: it’s specific; it’s concise; and it’s adapted to the kind of message (positive, negative, persuasive). If you can’t make the subject both specific and short, be specific. The subject line for an informative or positive message should highlight any good news and summarize the information concisely. Good messages provide the necessary information without overwhelming their audience. Use benefits in informative and positive messages when you want to shape your audience’s attitudes toward the information or toward your organization. Goodwill endings should focus on the business relationship you share with your audience or the audience’s organization. The last paragraph of a message to a group should apply to the whole group.

LO 9-5

How to compose some of thecommon varieties of informative and positive messages.

Some common informative and positive messages are transmittals, summaries, thank-you notes, positive feedback, and positive responses to complaints. All usually follow some variation of the pattern presented above.

Continuing Case The All-Weather Case, set in an HR department in a manufacturing company, extends through all 19 chapters and is available at www.mhhe.com/locker11e. The portion for this chapter asks students to reorganize and rewrite an informational message.

Exercises and Cases 9.1

*Go to www.mhhe.com/locker11e for additional Exercises and Cases.

Reviewing the Chapter

1. What are the purposes of informative and positive messages? (LO-9-1) 2. What technological changes are occurring in business communication? (LO 9-2) 3. What are the multiple purposes of informative and good-news messages? (LO 9-3)

4. How does information overload impact your communications? (LO 9-3) 5. When do you use face-to-face contacts? Phone calls? Instant messages? Text messaging? Social media? Letters? Memos and e-mails? (LO 9-3)

Chapter 9

Sharing Informative and Positive Messages with Appropriate Technology

6. What are some tips for effectively using face-to-face contacts? Phone calls? Instant messages? Text messaging? Social media? Letters? Memos and e-mails? (LO 9-3) 7. How do you organize informative and positive messages? (LO 9-4)

9.2

correcting sentence errors (B.8) and editing for grammar and usage (B.9).

Describing the Role of Technology Where You Work

Analyze the role of technology in an organization where you—or a friend or family member—have worked. ■ What kinds of communication technology do you use most? ■ What are some of the newest communication technologies introduced there? ■ What kinds of technology upgrades do you wish would be made? ■ Are certain kinds of technology used for certain situations? (For instance, are layoffs announced face-toface or by e-mail?)

9.4

8. What are some concerns to consider when choosing and ordering the information in your message? (LO 9-4) 9. What are tips for composing some of the common varieties of informative and positive messages? (LO 9-5)

Reviewing Grammar

Good letters and e-mails need correct grammar. Practice yours by doing the exercises from Appendix B on

9.3

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What kinds of data security measures are in force? Has anyone there gotten in trouble for misuse of technology?

As your instructor directs, a. Share your information in small groups. b. Present your group findings to your classmates. c. Post your information online for your classmates.

Saying Yes to a Subordinate—E-mails for Discussion

Today, you get this request from a subordinate. Subject:

Request for Leave

You know that I’ve been feeling burned out. I’ve decided that I

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